Prevalence, Comfort With, and Characteristics of Sex Toy Use in a

Graduate Student Journal of Psychology

2023, Vol. 20

Teachers College, Columbia University

Prevalence, Comfort With, and Characteristics of Sex

Toy Use in a US Convenience Sample using Reddit.com

Emily Fippen

& George Gaither

Teachers College, Columbia University; Department of Clinical & Counseling Psychology

Ball State University, Department of Psychological Science

In 2020, the global sex toy market was valued at

$33.64 billion, more than double compared to the

2009 value of $15 billion (Grandview Research, 2021).

With the sex toy industry growing at an exponential

rate, more people throughout the world are having

dierential experiences with sexually-enhancing tech-

nology. Sex toys are now sold in several commercial

grocery stores, such as Walmart and Target, and can

also be found within sex shops, various stores at shop-

ping malls, and on countless websites. The proposed

study aims to identify participants’ comfort levels and

experiences with sex toys, as well as to identify levels of

comfortability among participants who reported pre-

vious experiences with sexual assault, sexual dysfunc-

tion, and/or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

Understanding how and why American adults use sex

toys and sexual “aids” can allow for a better analysis of

why sex remains a taboo topic within the United States,

and can inform clinicians on how to best incorporate

sex toys and sexual “aids” into therapeutic practice.

Sex toys, as dened by Döring and Poeschl (2020),

are sexual enhancement products with the intent of

improving the nature and quality of sexual experi-

ences. Sex toys are material objects that are used di-

rectly on the body and include “sexual aids” such as

lubrication, bondage, and lingerie. This operation-

alization of sex toys emphasizes pleasure and the en-

hancement of sexual experiences as it pertains to over-

all sexual health and satisfaction. Throughout this

study, the terms “sex toys” and “sexual aids” may be

used interchangeably, as the term “sexual aids” refers

to “an object or device that is primarily used to facil-

itate human sexual pleasure” (Miranda et al., 2019,).

In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Men-

tal Disorders (DSM-V), a sexual dysfunction can be

dened as “a clinically signicant disturbance in a

person’s ability to respond sexually or to experience

sexual pleasure” (American Psychiatric Association,

p. 423). In the United States, sexual dysfunctions

aect approximately 43% of women and 31% of

men (Rosen, 2000), some of which include hypo-

active sexual desire disorder, erectile dysfunction,

orgasmic disorder, and female sexual arousal disor-

der. It is noteworthy to mention that the diagno-

sis of hypoactive sexual desire disorder has changed

with the newest edition of the DSM (DSM-V) and

is now enveloped underneath an umbrella diagno-

sis titled ‘female sexual interest/arousal disorder’.

Currently, little is known about comfortability

with toys, especially among individuals with sexual

assault or sexual dysfunction-related issues. The pres-

ent study aims to explore participants’ levels of com-

fortability with and use of various types of sex toys

and sexual aids. Further, this study aims to identify

Although Döring and Poeschl (2020) have presented ndings on the use of a broader range of sex toys from a German

national sample, little is known about the prevalence and characteristics of users of a broad range of sex toys in the

United States. The present study aims to examine the prevalence, characteristics of, and comfort with sex toys among

a sample of American adults (n = 231). Within this study, the term “sex toy” refers to any object used directly on the

body (e.g., vibrator, dildo, handheld masturbator), while “sexual aids” refers to items that may enhance sexual plea-

sure or libido (e.g., lubrication, aphrodisiacs). We used survey data that was previously collected in 2020 using Red-

dit.com/r/SampleSize and Ball State University’s Communications Center to solicit participation. Using data from

Döring & Poeschl (2020) to assess sex toy use, we added questions regarding participant comfortability using sex toys

in the past. If the participant had never previously used sex toys but would be willing to do so in the future, we asked

about the perceived comfort of using a sex toy. We also asked about the perceived positive and negative eects of toy

use, as well as a number of possible predictors of use including personality, sexuality, mental health, and trauma-re-

lated experiences (sexual assault, sex problems/dysfunctions, being diagnosed with PTSD). Our ndings revealed

that a signicant portion of Americans have previously used sex toys. Among our participants who have never used a

sex toy, a signicant portion said they would be willing to try doing so in the future. Future research could examine

prevalence, comfort with, and characteristics of sex toy use among a more sexually and racially diverse sample. Im-

plications for sexual health will be discussed in terms of the Positive Sexuality and Positive Technology frameworks.

Keywords: Sex toys, sexual aids, sexual dysfunction, sexual assault, convenience sampling

FIPPEN & GAITHER

levels of comfortability with sexual aids among par-

ticipants who report having ever experienced a sexual

assault, sexual dysfunction, and/or PTSD. In addi-

tion to past and present sex toy usage, we asked par-

ticipants about past experiences with sexual assault,

PTSD, and religiosity, as well as perceived positive and

negative eects of and comfortability with sex toys.

Literature Review

Sex Toys Trends

A plethora of research regarding sex toys and

their users is not currently available, due to a lack of

empirical studies. This lack of research may be in-

formed by the consideration of many Americans that

sex toys, and discussions of sex in general, are taboo.

Many discussions about sexual behavior and sexual

health are clouded by discomfort, awkwardness,

and a negative stigma (Schwallie, 2020). However, a

select few studies have been conducted, such as the

research by Reece and his colleagues (2010), as well as

by Döring and Poeschl (2020). These studies aimed

to examine rates of sex toy and sexual aid use among

singles and couples, what individual demographics

inuence people to consume these toys, and exactly

what kinds of toys these groups are using. Further,

these studies were conducted using nationally repre-

sentative samples, which implies that there is a high

level of condence that the data can be generalized to

the larger population.

Throughout the existing literature, it has been

repeatedly found that women are the largest consum-

ers of sex toys, especially vibrators, with queer women

having the highest rates of use. It has been found in one

sample that around 90% of women reported ever hav-

ing used sex toys during partnered sex, masturbation,

or both (Fahs & Swank, 2013). Approximately 37.3%

of women reported ever having used a vibrator during

partnered sexual intercourse, while 46.3% reported

ever having used a vibrator during foreplay (Herbenick

et al., 2009). 85% of women (n = 889) reported feeling

comfortable using a vibrator alone while 69.6% report-

ed that they feel comfortable using a vibrator with a

partner (Herbenick et al., 2010). However, rates of sex

toy use during solo masturbation vary by study, with

Reece and his colleagues (2010) nding that 46.3% of

women have ever used a vibrator alone during mas-

turbation. Comparatively, in Döring and Poeschl’s

(2020) research, they found that 72% (n = 366) of

women – almost three-fourths, reported ever having

used a toy designed to stimulate the vagina or vulva

during solo sex. Rates of reporting may vary due to

fear of judgment, social stigma, or sampling methods,

as was reported by participants in Fahs and Swank’s

(2013) study. These studies indicate that many wom-

en, if not comfortable enough to incorporate sex toys

into their solo and/or partnered activities, are at least

familiar with dierent types of sex toys and their uses.

An important note to make regarding women’s

sex toy use is that attitudes and perceptions tend to

vary based on sexual orientation, as demonstrated by

the work of Fahs and Swank (2013). Their study exam-

ined rates of sex toy use by sexual orientation and found

that nonheterosexual women reported less shame and

expressed more desire to use toys with a partner, as

these women tended not to place such an emphasis

on phallocentrism and heteronormativity. Most of the

heterosexual women, however, were more concerned

about their partner’s attitudes and opinions on their

use of sex toys, and feared that their partner would feel

sexually inadequate, despite many of these participants

reporting that their partner had never expressed these

concerns. Because nonheterosexual women tend to

not place as much, if any, emphasis on sexual phallo-

centrism and heteronormativity, these women were

better able to adopt a more playful connotation sur-

rounding sex toys, both during solo and partnered sex.

Both groups of women were found to vary in their

expression of agency in reference to their relationship

with and feelings about sex toys, particularly penetra-

tive toys, as heterosexual women were more likely to

believe that masturbating without penetrative toys was

abnormal and a cause for concern, while nonhetero-

sexual women did not hold this belief. The work of

Fahs and Swank (2013) eectively distinguishes rates

of sex toy use among American heterosexual and non-

heterosexual women, as well as discusses how sex toys

often carry a negatative connotation when discussed

within the connes of a heterosexual relationship.

Contrary to the popular belief that women use sex

toys and sexual aids at higher rates, it has been found

that rates of sex toy usage among men and women

are similar, with 43.8% of men (n = 423) reporting

that they had ever used a vibrator, either during solo

or partnered sex (Reece et al., 2010). Comparatively,

it was found by Döring and Poeschl (2020) that 34%

of men (n = 295) reported ever having used sexu-

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

al aids designed for the stimulation of the penis and

testicles, while 44% had ever used aids designed for

the stimulation of the vulva and vagina. Interesting-

ly, sex toy usage varies by partnership among men, as

has been found in Reece’s and his colleagues’ (2010)

research. Reece et al. (2010) found that men in part-

nerships were much more likely to report ever having

used a vibrator during partnered sexual intercourse,

with 43% of men in romantic partnerships and 38%

of married men displaying this trend. Comparatively,

only 21.3% of single men reported ever having used a

vibrator during sexual intercourse with a partner. Ap-

proximately one-third of the sample (n = 985) report-

ed ever having used a vibrator during masturbation

alone. The work of Döring and Poeschl (2020) and

Reece et al. (2010) indicate that sex toy use, particular-

ly vibrator use, is common among heterosexual men,

and is a phenomenon that should be studied further.

Similar to “sexual aid” research as a whole, there

exists a lack of current research examining the rates and

types of sex toy use among gay and bisexually identify-

ing men. It has been found that, among gay and bisexu-

al men (n = 25,294), nearly 80% report ever having used

at least one type of sex toy (Rosenberger et al., 2011),

including dildos (62.1%), vibrators (49.6%), butt plugs

(34.0%), masturbation sleeves (27.9%), and anal balls

or beads (19.3%). A commonly reported phenomenon

among gay and bisexual men is inserting a toy, such as

a butt plug or dildo, into one’s own anus during mas-

turbation (95.7%) or into their partner’s anus (72.0%).

Types of Toys

Few existing studies have examined exactly what

types of toys are being used by the overall popula-

tion. In a study that aimed to examine the most used

sex toys, as well as hygienic behaviors following their

use, it was found that the most popular sexual aid is

the vibrator, with 54.53% of people (n = 1,435) with

a vulva and vagina reporting that they had ever used

any sort of store-bought or homemade vibrator (Wood

et al., 2017). Similarly, 21.26% of these people report-

ed ever having used a dildo, and 9.26% reported using

sexual toys related to BDSM (bondage, dominance,

sadism, masochism), such as whips, anal beads, or

devices used for restraint. Among heterosexual men,

52% (n = 295) have reported using sex toys designed

for the stimulation of the penis and testicles, such as

cock rings or handheld masturbators, within the past

year during solo sex (Döring & Poeschl, 2020). Com-

paratively, 31% of men from the same sample reported

using toys designed for the vagina and/or vulva, such

as a vibrator, during solo sex within the past year. 26%

of men reported ever having used toys for bondage

or S&M (sadism and masochism), such as whips or

cus, and 46% reported ever having used arousal-en-

hancing remedies, such as ingesting food or substances

that elicit sexual desire (i.e., aphrodisiacs), during solo

sex within the past year (Döring & Poeschl, 2020).

Sexual Aids as Treatment

Sexual aids are increasing in popularity as clini-

cian recommended treatments for sexual dysfunc-

tions, as well as for anxiety and fear following a sex-

ual assault. Nearly all the existing literature on sexual

aid recommendation focuses on cancer-related sexual

dysfunctions, which result from radiation targeted at

the pelvis and surrounding areas. When radiation tar-

gets the pelvic area, it may damage nerves and arteries

necessary for sexual functioning (American Cancer

Society, 2020). Sexual aids have recently been uti-

lized for rehabilitation, as they may serve to increase

sensitivity, functioning, and pleasure among cancer

patients. However, as discovered by Bober and his

colleagues (2019), the majority of cancer survivors do

not receive adequate support or education about sex-

ual health. While exact statistics vary regarding sexual

dysfunction as a side eect of cancer treatment, it has

been found by Andersen (1985) that 20 to 90 percent

of adult cancer patients suer from signicant sexu-

al dissatisfaction or dysfunction. However, among

these various cancer-treatment centers, only 27% oer

sexual aids and rehabilitation for women, while even

fewer (13%) oer the same aids for men (Bober et al.,

2019). Sexual aids, while serving to increase pleasure

and intimacy among couples, can also serve as a form

of rehabilitation for individuals suering from sexu-

al dysfunctions resulting from sexual assault, PTSD,

and cancer-related treatments. Further, physicians

and clinics should make sexual rehabilitation in these

instances more accessible to increase sensitivity and

functioning among those with sexual dysfunctions.

Sexual Dysfunction

It has been found that sexual dysfunctions are

common within the United States, aecting approx-

imately 43% of women and 31% of men (Rosen,

2000). Among these sexual dysfunctions, hypoac-

tive sexual desire is most common among women,

with about 30% of the female population meet-

FIPPEN & GAITHER

ing the diagnostic criteria. Erectile dysfunction is

the most common sexual dysfunction among men,

and rates vary due to the prevalence of this dysfunc-

tion growing exponentially with age (Rosen, 2000).

Sexual dysfunctions have a variety of causes and

may only arise during certain situations or circum-

stances. Common psychological causes for sexual

dysfunction include stress, anxiety, and depression

(Beaumont Health, 2023). It has been found that

when performance-related demands were placed on

both sexually functioning and sexually dysfunctional

men, the sexually dysfunctional men had lower lev-

els of sexual arousal due to becoming distracted by

the demand and the accompanying performance-re-

lated concerns (Barlow, 1986). Sexually dysfunction-

al men from the same study also reported that they

perceived themselves as having less control over their

sexual arousal than sexually functional men, even

when levels of erectile response were the same. Cur-

rent literature outlines how sexual dysfunctions can

have a strong inuence on sexual condence, anxiety,

and the sense of control one feels over their sexuality.

Further, some common physiological causes for

sexual dysfunction include neurological disorders, var-

ious prescription medications, alcohol and drug abuse,

cancer and related treatments, and sexual assault (Beau-

mont Health, 2023). Selective serotonin reuptake in-

hibitors (SSRIs), a medication commonly prescribed

for depression, are commonly known as having ad-

verse side eects, particularly in that they can contrib-

ute to the development of sexual dysfunction (Jing &

Straw-Wilson, 2016). While the exact cause of sexual

dysfunction as a side eect of SSRIs is not known, re-

searchers have identied that it is the reuptake process

of particular neurotransmitters, such as serotonin or

norepinephrine, that inuence the emergence of sexu-

al dysfunctions (Prabhakar & Balon, 2017). The eects

of SSRIs on sexual functioning have been researched,

and it has been found that around 40 to 50 percent

of both men and women experience reduced levels of

sexual arousal when taking an SSRI (Balon, 2006).

In relation to cancer, sexual dysfunctions arise when

radiation targets areas surrounding the pelvis, such as

the prostate, rectum, colon, or ovaries. Further, the

psychological implications that may arise from endur-

ing cancer treatments may contribute to lasting sexual

dysfunctions, such as body dysmorphia resulting from

hair loss or a change in weight (Archangelo et al., 2019).

The treatment of sexual dysfunctions today orig-

inates largely from the work of Masters and Johnson,

who became pioneers of sex therapy after the creation

and eective execution of sensate focus exercises in 1980

(Auteri, 2014). Sensate focus is a technique used to

improve communication between partners regarding

sex, reduce sexual performance anxiety, and shift away

from goal-oriented expectations toward a more inti-

mate and partner-focused experience (SMSNA, 2023).

These sessions of non-demanding, sensual touching

can increase comfortability with receiving touch from

a partner. When exercised alone, this self-exploration

can help an individual reclaim their sensuality and

condence. Sensate focus is commonly used for dys-

functional problems such as female sexual interest/

arousal disorder, erectile dysfunctions, and male hy-

poactive sexual desire disorder. Other commonly used

treatments involve hormone therapy, cognitive-be-

havioral therapy (CBT), medications, and mechanical

aids such as penile implants (Cleveland Clinic, 2020).

One increasingly common treatment recom-

mendation by sex therapists involves the incorpora-

tion of sexual aids or sex toys into masturbatory and

partnered sexual activities. Sex toys may increase sen-

sitivity and pleasure, and may also help to alleviate

anxiety and fear among individuals who have been

sexually assaulted (Rullo et al., 2020). However, in-

dividuals with dysfunction and/or sexual assault-re-

lated histories may be less inclined to use a sexual aid,

either alone or with a partner, due to anxiety and fear

surrounding sexual behaviors and sensual intimacy

(Kaplan, 1974). Appropriate discussions between a

client and their clinician are necessary to help deter-

mine what aids would be the most benecial, as well

as to determine how and when to use these particu-

lar aids. An increasing amount of literature is being

made available to help guide the public in their sexu-

al-aid endeavors, especially regarding dysfunction and

sexual assault. For example, Rullo et al. (2020) posit

that “there is no wrong way to use a vibrator. Patients

should be encouraged to explore vibrator use all over

the body, not just the genitals, and be reminded that

vibrator use is for both men and women” (p. 7). These

guidelines, and others like them, may help to increase

comfortability with the use of sex toys and sexual aids.

Sexual Assault

According to the Rape, Abuse, and Incest Na-

tional Network (RAINN, n.d.), sexual assault can be

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

dened as:

sexual contact or behavior that occurs

without explicit consent of the victim.

Some forms of sexual assault include: at-

tempted rape, fondling or unwanted sex-

ual touching, forcing a victim to perform

sexual acts, such as oral sex or penetrating

the perpetrator’s body, [and] penetration

of the victim’s body, also known as rape.

Rates of sexual assault among women is a topic

that has been highly researched, with previous nd-

ings indicating that upwards of 20 to 30 percent of

women have experienced rape or attempted rape at

least once during their lifetime (Koss, 1993, as cit-

ed in Ullman & Brecklin, 2002). Sexual assault is the

least reported violent crime, with less than one-third

of sexual assaults being reported to law enforcement

(RAINN, n.d.). Reasons for not reporting an assault

may include fear of retaliation by the perpetrator, a be-

lief that law enforcement won’t succor the situation,

or a belief that the incident wasn’t severe enough to

report. The reporting of a sexual assault is less frequent

among male victims, as men may be reluctant to report

instances of sexual assault due to a widespread societal

belief that men are perpetrators, not victims, or due

to the belief by the victim that the incident was not

actually assault (Ullman & Brecklin, 2002). Further,

a common physiological response to anxiety or fear is

sexual arousal, and many instances of sexual assault are

discounted legally because the victim retained an erec-

tion and/or experienced ejaculation during the assault

(Bullock & Beckson, 2011). Regardless of reporting

status, experiencing a sexual assault has been found

to be highly correlated with a decline in mental health

(Ullman & Brecklin, 2002), as well as the development

of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Sexual as-

sault may lead to serious mental and physical health

complications and can contribute to the development

of a sexual dysfunction. Further, various assault-re-

lated factors, such as the severity of the assault or per-

ceived level of social support, can inuence the severity

and duration of implications following the assault.

According to the CDC (2021), nearly one in ve

American women are victims of attempted or com-

pleted rape, and one in three female rape victims rst

experienced an assault between the ages of 11 and 17.

Additionally, it is estimated that around 30% of cur-

rent PTSD diagnoses were a direct result of sexual as-

sault or sexual violence (Texas A&M Health, 2019).

Following an assault, common responses among

women include panic attacks, ashbacks, depression,

sexual dysfunctions, anxiety, and phobias, as well as an

increase in overall anger, fear, guilt, and alcohol and

drug abuse (US Department of Veterans Aairs, n.d.).

Currently, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is the

most common form of psychotherapy used to treat in-

dividuals dealing with psychological problems, such as

dissociation or PTSD, following a sexual assault. Many

treatments have been empirically proven to improve

individual symptoms dependent from PTSD, such

as anxiety and depression, these treatments are often

incorporated into a multifaceted treatment plan. Re-

cently, treatment plans began recommending the use

of sexual aids, as “vibratory stimulation of the genitals

is an evidence-based treatment” (Rullo et al., 2020, p.

2) for many sexual dysfunctions, including hypoactive

sexual desire in men and female sexual interest/arous-

al disorder. Through the process of psychotherapy,

victims of sexual assault are helped to recognize and

target their feelings about the assault, and to increase

their levels of self-condence and comfortability.

Experiencing a sexual assault may result in sexual

dysfunction or related issues, such as post-traumat-

ic stress disorder (PTSD). Current treatments for

individuals suering from psychological aictions

following a sexual assault include cognitive-behav-

ioral therapy (CBT), sensate focus exercises, the pre-

scription of SSRIs, and individual and/or couples’

therapy (Falsetti & Bernat, 2000). It has been de-

termined by previous research that psychotherapy

is necessary to restore declining mental health fol-

lowing a sexual assault (Kaplan, 1974). Addition-

ally, research suggests that using sex toys or aids is

benecial in overcoming physiological implications

following an assault, such as dysfunction issues and

their accompanying psychological implications.

The Present Study

Previous literature has briey examined sex toy

and sexual aid use, as well as explored demographic

trends for each. However, the literature fails to ex-

amine levels of comfortability among individuals,

as well as potential willingness regarding sex toy use.

The present study aims to expand on the conversation

held by Herbenick and her colleagues (2010) regard-

ing participant comfortability with sexual aids in solo

FIPPEN & GAITHER

and partnered sexual behaviors. Further, no current re-

search exists on the correlations among sexual assault,

sexual dysfunction, PTSD, and sex toy and sexual aid

use. The present study aims to ll these gaps by ask-

ing participants about their previous experiences using

and researching sex toys, their levels of comfortability

or willingness regarding these toys, and how levels of

comfortability may be inuenced by a previous history

of sexual assault, dysfunction, and/or PTSD. Under-

standing American adults’ comfortability and will-

ingness to use sex toys can potentially provide insight

into why sex remains a taboo topic within the Unit-

ed States, how to best introduce sex toys into one’s

sexual practices, and how to incorporate sex toys and

sexual aids most comfortably into sexual assault and

dysfunction related treatments. The present study

was inuenced by the work of Döring and Poeschl

(2020), as their study introduced an important aspect

of participants’ sexual ideology by asking participants

about their self-perceived positive and negative eects,

giving valuable insight into rates and trends regarding

sex toy usage. Data provided by the participants of this

study will be analyzed in accordance with the Posi-

tive Sexuality and Positive Technology frameworks.

The Positive Sexuality framework views sexu-

ality through a pragmatic yet multidisciplinary lens

while addressing the full range of positive and nega-

tive implications that arise from engaging in sexual

behavior. By analyzing sexuality through a positive

framework, socially negative sexual stigmas can be

avoided, and sexuality can be understood as a means

of individuality, interrelationship strengthening, plea-

sure, and peacemaking (Williams, 2015). Further, this

framework acknowledges the risks and negative con-

sequences that can accompany sexuality and sexual

behavior. To combat these negative implications, the

Positive Sexuality framework emphasizes education

and communication as a means of understanding.

The Positive Technology framework views tech-

nology as a means of “fostering personal growth and

individual integration in the sociocultural environ-

ment, by promoting satisfaction, opportunities for

action, and self-expression” (Riva et al., 2012, p. 69)

Technology, in some capacity, can inuence and en-

hance nearly every constituent of human experiences

and overall functioning. Further, this framework con-

siders sexual aids to be not only devices used for plea-

sure, but also therapeutic aids that can help to reduce

sexual anxieties, physical pain, sexual dysfunctions,

and the accompanying implications that these factors

may have on sexual functioning. In combination with

the Positive Sexuality framework, sex toys and sexual

aids can be viewed as a technological innovation that

could potentially help millions of people become

more comfortable with their bodies and sexualities.

Purpose and Hypotheses

The purpose of this study is to better under-

stand the prevalence of Americans’ sex toy and

“sexual aid” use through the lenses of the Pos-

itive Sexuality and Positive Technology frame-

works. The following hypotheses were generated:

Hypothesis 1: Women will report higher rates of sex

toy and sexual aid usage than men, as found by Döring

& Poeschl (2020).

Hypothesis 2: Compared to men, women will report

higher usage of sex toys designed to stimulate the vul-

va and vagina, and lower usage of sex toys designed to

stimulate the penis and testicles, during only mastur-

batory behavior, as found by Döring & Poeschl (2020).

Hypothesis 3: Among participants who report that

they have never used a sex toy but would be willing to,

there will be no signicant dierence between men

and women in levels of willingness to use sex toys.

Hypothesis 4: Women will report more comfort us-

ing and researching sex toys than men.

Hypothesis 5: Among women, the most used sex toys

will be toys designed for stimulation of the vagina and

vulva, as found by Wood et al. (2017).

Hypothesis 6: Among men, the most used “sexual

aid” will be toys designed to stimulate the penis and

testicles.

Hypothesis 7: Participants with a history of sexual

assault will be less likely to report using sex toys and

sexual aids for both solo and partnered sexual activity.

Hypothesis 8: Regarding sexual assault and sex toy

use, there will be a gender eect such that women who

report having experienced a sexual assault will be sig-

nicantly less likely to have used toys than those who

haven’t. However, there will be no dierence in sex toy

usage between men who have and have not been sexu-

ally assaulted.

Hypothesis 9: Regarding sexual dysfunction and

sex toy use, there will be a gender eect such that

men who report having experienced a sexual dys-

function will be signicantly more likely to have used

toys than those who haven’t. However, there will be

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

no dierence in sex toy usage among women who

have and have not experienced a sexual dysfunction.

Method

Participants

The data collected by Dr. Gaither and his students

was obtained largely through Reddit, using conve-

nience sampling. A total of 311 participants entered

the survey, while 231 fully completed the survey, as

some participants exited the survey early. The only

exclusion criterion for this study included being un-

der the age of 18. Participants of this study (n = 231)

were between the ages of 18 and 71 (M = 24.89, SD

= 8.59). Slightly over two-thirds of participants were

women (68.3%, n = 224), compared to 26.5% of the

participants being male (n = 87). For racial demo-

graphics, 82.9% of participants were Caucasian (n =

272), 3.4% were Hispanic (n = 11), 3.0% were Asian (n

= 10), 2.4% were African American (n = 8), 1.4% were

Latinx (n = 4), 0.3% were Pacic Islander or Native

Hawaiian (n = 1) and 4.9% reported being of another

race not listed (n = 16). Most participants identied as

heterosexual (63.7%, n = 209), while 18.0% identied

as bisexual (n = 59), 3.7% identied as gay (n = 12),

4.0% identied as lesbian (n = 13), 3.7% identied as

pansexual (n = 12), 2.4% identied as asexual (n = 8),

and 2.4% identied as another sexual orientation not

listed (n = 8). When asked about levels of religiosity,

48.5% of participants reported that they were not at

all religious (n = 159). Similarly, 25.0% reported that

they were slightly religious (n = 82), 15.9% reported

that they were moderately religious (n = 52), 7.3% re-

ported that they were very religious (n = 24), and 1.2%

reported that they were extremely religious (n = 4).

When asked, “have you ever been sexually assault-

ed?” 34.5% of participants responded with yes (n =

113). When participants were asked “have you ever

been diagnosed with Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD)?”, 9.5% of participants responded with yes (n

= 31). When asked, “have you ever had problems func-

tioning sexually?”, 32.0% of participants responded

with yes, I have had some problems with functioning

sexually, but have never been ocially diagnosed with

a sexual dysfunction (n = 105), while 2.4% responded

with yes, I have been diagnosed with at least 1 sexual

dysfunction in my life (n = 8). There was no incentive

provided to participants for completing the survey.

Measures/Materials

Participants completed a survey that contained

several subscales within it. As part of a larger study,

participants completed several items that included

demographics, comfort, use of toys, experiences with

assault and dysfunction, and measures of personality.

Questions regarding specic variables (e.g., previous

experiences using sex toys, sexual assault, sexual dys-

function, etc.) were concise and straightforward to

make sure participants fully understood each item.

This study will not explain all variables utilized in the

survey and will only explain relevant variables. Vari-

ables excluded from the analysis and discussion include

satisfaction and personality. Self-perceived positive

and negative eects, while not part of the initial anal-

ysis, will be explored more in the discussion section.

Sociodemographic Characteristics

The rst set of items were demographic items includ-

ing age, race, gender, sexual orientation, birth country,

and levels of religiosity. Experience with sexual assault

was assessed with single item (“Have you ever been sex-

ually assaulted?”), with response options of yes and no.

Use & Comfort with Use of Sex Toys

The next section of the survey asked participants

about their previous experience with sex toys and sex-

ual aids. Items asked participants about their previous

experience with sex toys, if they had ever researched a

sex toy, what sex toys they had previously used, levels

of comfortability with using and researching sex toys,

comfortability with attending a sex toy party, and per-

ceived positive and negative eects of using a sex toy.

Examples of survey items include “have you ever

looked into, or researched sex toys?” and “have you

ever used a sex toy for masturbation?” with response

options of yes, no but I would be willing to do so in

the future, and no and I cannot see myself ever doing

so. If respondents answered yes, they were taken to a

follow-up question that asked, “How comfortable

were you when you researched sex toys (or when you

used a sex toy for masturbation)?”. Response options

for comfortability items utilized a 7-point Likert

scale, which ranged from extremely comfortable (1)

to extremely uncomfortable (7). If respondents an-

swered no but I would be willing to do so in the fu-

ture, they were taken to a follow-up question that

asked, “How comfortable do you think you would

be if you were to research sex toys (or if you were to

use a sex toy for masturbation)?” Response options

FIPPEN & GAITHER

for expected comfortability ranged from extreme-

ly comfortable (1) to extremely uncomfortable (7).

If respondents answered no and I cannot see myself

ever doing so, no item regarding comfortability was

presented. For comfort items, higher numbers with-

in the data indicate lower levels of comfortability.

Sexual Dysfunction

The next section of the survey, which had three

items, asked about participants’ previous history with

sexual dysfunction. Present survey items were based

on items from the 1992 National Health and Social

Life Survey, which aimed to better understand Amer-

icans’ various sexual practices, as well as the surround-

ing life circumstances and social contexts in which

these practices occur. An example of one of the survey

items includes “have you ever had problems function-

ing sexually or been diagnosed with a sexual dysfunc-

tion?” with response options including no I have never

had any problems functioning sexually, yes I have had

some problems with functioning sexually, but never

been ocially diagnosed with a sexual dysfunction,

and yes, I have been diagnosed with at least 1 sexual

dysfunction in my life. If respondents answered this

item with anything other than no I have never had any

problems functioning sexually, they were taken to a

follow-up question, also modeled from the NHSLS,

that asked about the specic sexual dysfunction that

the respondent has experienced. Respondents were

asked to report on whether they have experienced lack-

ing desire for sex, arousal diculties, inability achiev-

ing climax or ejaculation, anxiety about sexual perfor-

mance, climaxing or ejaculating too rapidly, physical

pain during intercourse, and not nding sex pleasur-

able. For each of these dysfunctions, respondents

were presented with response options of yes and no.

Procedure

Recruitment ads for the study (i.e., convenience

sampling) were posted on reddit.com/samplesize and

on the Ball State University Communications Center

during the Fall of 2020. People who were interested

in participating clicked on a link to the anonymous

survey which began with a study information and

consent page. Those who did not click “I agree” were

skipped to the end of the survey; otherwise, they en-

tered the survey. The rst question asked for age; any-

one who typed in a number less than 18 was skipped

to the end of the survey. Those who remained in the

survey answered questions about demographics, ex-

periences and comfort with sex toys from a variety

of perspectives (e.g., ever researched toys, used them,

bought them, attended a party, etc.). Participants also

completed items regarding whether they had ever been

sexually assaulted, diagnosed with PTSD, experienced

problems in sexual functioning, or been diagnosed

with a sexual dysfunction. They completed short

forms of the Openness and Extraversion subscales of

the Big Five Inventory, the behavioral subscale of the

SocioSexual Orientation Inventory, and the Sexual

Esteem subscale of the Sexuality Scale. Finally, partic-

ipants completed items regarding their relationship

and sexual satisfaction, as well as their perceived eects

of sex toy use. Once participants reached the end of

the survey, they were thanked for their participation.

The data was analyzed using SPSS software. A se-

ries of frequency tests, chi-square, one-way ANOVAs

(cross tabulations), and independent samples t-tests

were conducted to examine the data and to compare

with the generated hypotheses. Frequency tests were

used to analyze demographic information and to ob-

tain the frequencies of the number of participants for

individual items. The chi-square crosstabs were used

to better uncover the correlation between specic

variables, such as sex toy use and previous experienc-

es with sexual assault. Crosstabs were used to analyze

means between various groups of conditions, such as

between male and female sex toy users who either have

or have not been sexually assaulted. T-tests were used

to measure the means between two groups regard-

ing various items, such as measuring the mean com-

fort level when using a sex toy during masturbation

among individuals who report that they have or have

not dealt with sexual functioning issues. Signicance

levels were adjusted using the Bonferroni correction

method to attribute for running multiple analyses

Results

Acquisition of Sex Toys

Both male and female participants of this sample

(N = 231) were overall well acquainted with sex toys

and sexual aids. A series of frequency tests were run,

split by gender, to better understand the prevalence

of participants’ acquisition on each item. 84.2% of all

participants reported that they had ever researched

or looked into sex toys, and 80.4% said that they had

looked at sex toys in an online shop. 41.8% of par-

ticipants had ever spoken to someone else about sex

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

toys, and 17.7% had ever received a sex toy as a gift. A

majority of the sample (69.8%) had ever bought a sex

toy themselves. A series of crosstabs were also run to

determine statistical signicance regarding the acqui-

sition of sex toys between the genders. Overall, there

was no signicant dierence between men and women

on measures of acquisition of sex toys, except for items

that asked about sex toy parties. There were no men

within the sample that reported ever being invited to

a sex toy party or ever hosting a sex toy party. Because

none of the men reported that they had ever been in-

vited to attend a sex toy party, they were not shown

the follow-up question “Have you ever attended a sex

toy party that someone else hosted?” However, 13.8%

of male participants who reported that they had never

hosted a sex toy party also reported that they would

be willing to host a party in the future (p = .002, see

Table 1). Among female participants (n = 224), 63.7%

reported that they had ever attended a sex toy party,

and 5.5% reported that they had hosted a sex toy party.

Sex Toy Use, Comfort, & Willingness in Solo Sex

Sex toy use was analyzed by running a series of

crosstabs to determine statistical signicance during

masturbation between the genders. All percentag-

es regarding sex toy use, comfort, and willingness in

solo sex can be found within Table 1. Most partici-

pants (70.4%) reported that they had ever used a sex

toy during solo sex, while 19% reported that they had

not yet, but would be willing to do so in the future.

Women reported using sex toys more than men during

masturbation, with 76.1% of women reporting ever

having used a sex toy during solo sex, compared to

63.1% of men (p = .04, see Table 1). This nding pro-

vides support for the rst hypothesis. Among women,

the most used sex toys and sexual aids during mastur-

bation included toys designed for the stimulation of

the vagina and vulva (69.2%), lubricants (42.9%), and

erotic lingerie (22.8%). Among men, the most used

sex toys and sexual aids during masturbation included

lubricants (47.1%), toys designed for the stimulation

of the penis and testicles (42.5%, p < .001, see Table

2), and toys designed for the stimulation of the vagi-

na and vulva (26.4%). Although a notable number

of men reported having used toys designed for the

stimulation of the vagina and vulva, women were sig-

nicantly more likely to use these same toys during

masturbation (p < .001, see Table 2), and this pro-

vides support for the second hypothesis. Percentages

regarding specic sex toys can be found in Table 2.

An independent samples t-test, split by gender,

was run to determine the means of comfortability re-

garding sex toy use during solo sex for each item, with

lower means representing higher levels of comfortabil-

ity. Women largely reported being slightly more un-

comfortable (M = 1.70, SD = 1.17, d = -.05) when

having used a sex toy during masturbation compared

to men (M = 1.64, SD = 1.19; see Table 3). Overall,

there were no signicant dierences between men and

women on items of comfort, except that men report-

ed feeling signicantly more comfortable, t (153) =

-2.32, when researching a sex toy (M = 2.09, d = -.29,

p = .022) compared to women (M = 2.51, see Table 3).

These ndings are directly contradictory to the fourth

hypothesis. Overall, men reported higher comfort

with all items relating to acquisition (e.g., research,

talking to others, purchasing, receiving a toy as a gift),

as well as use during masturbation and partnered sex-

ual activity. These data could be skewed by the dispro-

portionate number of women to men, but the women

within this sample consistently reported slightly high-

er levels of discomfort than the men on all measures.

A series of crosstabulations were run to determine

statistical signicance among participants who have

never used a sex toy during masturbation but would

be willing to do so in the future. Among individuals

who have never used a sex toy but would be willing to,

there were no signicant dierences between men and

women on willingness to use sex toys during mastur-

bation, except that men reported signicantly more

willingness, X2(1) = 28.56, to try toys designed for the

stimulation of the penis and testicles than women (p <

.001; see Table 1). This nding is directly contradicto-

ry to hypothesis three, which predicted no dierence

in levels of willingness between the genders. Trends

reect that men within this sample are more willing

to try lubricants, remedies for enhancing arousal,

and toys designed for the stimulation of the penis

and testicles, whereas women are more willing to try

erotic lingerie, toys designed for the stimulation of

the vagina and vulva, and toys for bondage and S&M.

Sex Toy Use, Comfort, & Willingness in

Partnered Sex

All percentages regarding sex toy use, comfort,

and willingness in partnered sex can be found within

Table 1. 46% of men and 55.4% of women reported

ever having used a sex toy during partnered sexual ac-

FIPPEN & GAITHER

tivity, which was analyzed through a series of cross-

tabulations. Although there was no statistically sig-

nicant dierence among men and women for types

of toys used during partnered sex, trends indicate that

women are more likely to have used erotic lingerie

(33.5%) and toys for stimulation of the vagina and vul-

va (46.9%) during partnered sexual activity within the

past 12 months. Men and women were about equally

likely to have used lubricants (35.6% of men vs. 40.6%

of women), remedies for enhancing arousal (4.6% vs.

5.8%), toys designed for the stimulation of the penis

and testicles (19.5% vs. 15.2%), and toys for bondage

and S&M during partnered sexual activity (21.8%

vs. 23.2%) within the same time frame. Percentages

regarding specic sex toys can be found in Table 2.

Interestingly, trends indicate that men reported

being more willing to try every sex toy listed during

intercourse with a partner than women, as analyzed

through a series of crosstabulations. There was a sta-

tistically signicant dierence in that men reported

being more willing to try toys designed for the penis

and testicles during partnered intercourse than wom-

en (p < .001). This data reects that men and women

are about equally as likely to try various sexual aids and

sex toys during masturbation, other than toys designed

for the penis and testicles, but that men are more will-

ing than women to incorporate toys into partnered

sexual activity. This nding challenges the dominant

heteronormative belief that most men are against

bringing sex toys into partnered sexual activities.

Sex Toy Use & Comfort Among Victims of

Sexual Assault

All factors relating to the use and comfort of sex

toys among victims of sexual assault were analyzed

through a series of crosstabulations and independent

samples t-tests. 13.8% of men within the sample report-

ed ever having experienced a sexual assault, compared

to 41.7% of women, as shown through a frequency

analysis. Among men who reported ever having experi-

enced a sexual assault, 81.8% reported ever having used

a sex toy during masturbation, while 9.1% reported

that they had not but would be willing to do so in the

future. Among women who experienced an assault,

81.5% had ever used a sex toy during masturbation,

while 15.2% reported that they had not but that they

would be willing to do so in the future. It is notewor-

thy to emphasize that nearly an identical percentage

of men and women who have been sexually assaulted

reported using a sex toy during masturbation (81.8%

vs. 81.5%), and that men reported slightly higher rates

of toy use during masturbation compared to women.

Among men who have been sexually assault-

ed, 63.6% reported ever having used a sex toy during

partnered sex, while 36.4% reported that they had

not but that they would be willing to do so in the

future. None of the men who reported having been

sexually assaulted reported that they would never be

willing to try sex toys during partnered sex. Among

women who have been sexually assaulted, 68.9% re-

ported that they had ever used a sex toy during part-

nered sex, while 21.1% reported that they had not

but that they would be willing to do so in the future.

Although not statistically signicant, it is note-

worthy to mention that trends indicate that both men

and women who have been sexually assaulted are more

likely to have used toys than those who have never

been sexually assaulted, both during masturbation and

sex with a partner. This nding directly contradicts the

seventh hypothesis and slightly contradicts the eighth

hypothesis in that there was no gender eect for sex

toy use among those who have been sexually assault-

ed. However, both men and women who have been

sexually assaulted also reported lower levels of com-

fortability during their previous experiences using sex

toys. Among participants who have never been sexual-

ly assaulted, men reported more comfortability on all

items. The reverse eect was found among participants

who reported ever having experienced a sexual assault

in that men reported much lower levels of comfortabil-

ity than women who have been sexually assaulted.

Among men who have ever used toys during mastur-

bation, those who have been sexually assaulted report-

ed much lower levels of comfortability (M = 2.33)

than those who have never been assaulted (M = 1.64).

Among women who have ever used sex toys during

masturbation, those who have been assaulted reported

only slightly lower levels of comfortability (M = 1.76)

than those who have never been assaulted (M = 1.70).

Among men who have ever used sex toys during part-

nered sex, those who reported ever having experienced

a sexual assault reported much lower levels of com-

fortability (M = 2.71) than those who have never been

assaulted (M = 1.75). Among women who have ever

used a sex toy during partnered sex, those who reported

ever having experienced a sexual assault reported only

slightly lower levels of comfortability (M = 1.95) than

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

those who have never experienced a sexual assault (M

= 1.90). The potential factors contributing to this phe-

nomenon will be discussed in the discussion section.

Sex Toy Use & Comfort Among Those with

Sexual Dysfunctions

Toy use and comfort among participants who

have at least one sexual dysfunction were analyzed

through a series of crosstabulations. 32.2% of men

and 35.7% of women reported ever having experi-

enced problems with sexual functioning, either with

or without a formal diagnosis. Among men who re-

ported ever having experienced a sexual dysfunction,

17% reported that they had ever used a sex toy during

masturbation, while 5.0% reported that they had not

but that they would be willing to do so in the future.

Similarly, 17.5% of men in the same subsample re-

ported that they had ever used a sex toy during part-

nered sex, while 11.8% reported that they had not

but that they would be willing to do so in the future.

Among women who reported ever having experi-

enced a sexual dysfunction, 45.2% reported that they

had ever used a toy during masturbation, while 35.9%

reported that they had not but that they would be will-

ing to do so in the future. Similarly, half of the women

who reported ever having experienced a sexual dys-

function (50.0%) also reported that they had ever used

a sex toy during partnered sex, while 27.9% reported

that they had not but that they would be willing to

do so in the future. Although not statistically signif-

icant, both men and women who reported having

experienced a sexual dysfunction also reported using

sex toys during both masturbation and partnered sex-

ual behavior at lower rates than those who have nev-

er experienced a sexual dysfunction. This nding re-

futes hypothesis nine, seeing as both men and women

who have a sexual dysfunction reported lower rates of

sex toy use than those without a sexual dysfunction.

Regarding comfortability using sex toys

among those with sexual dysfunctions, women

reported lower levels of comfortability on both items

of masturbation (M = 1.84) and partnered sex (M =

2.02) than those who have never experienced a sexual

dysfunction. Among men, those who reported ever

having experienced a sexual dysfunction reported

feeling more comfortable when using a sex toy during

masturbation (M = 1.37) compared to those who have

never had a sexual dysfunction (M = 1.79). However,

the reverse eect was found during partnered sex, in

that men who reported having experienced a sexual

dysfunction reported less comfortability when using a

sex toy with a partner (M = 1.81) compared to those

who have never had a sexual dysfunction (M = 1.71).

Discussion

Sex toys and sexual “aids” have existed throughout

history and all over the world to help promote sexual

stimulation and physiological responses. Since the rise

of modern technology, the sex toy market has blos-

somed into a multi-billion-dollar industry, primarily

emphasizing sexual pleasure. However, sex toys can

also harbor a therapeutic function, eliciting sexual re-

sponsiveness among those with sexual dysfunctions.

Further, sex toys can be a means of regaining com-

fortability with sexuality and sexual intimacy among

individuals who have experienced a sexual assault (Rul-

lo et al., 2020). The ndings of this study correlate with

the Positive Sexuality framework, seeing as participants

acknowledged both the positive and negative eects of

sex toy use, but also reported a signicant level of will-

ingness to learn about and use sex toys in the future.

The empirically proven benets of sex toys and sexual

aids for dysfunction and assault-related implications

align with the Positive Technology framework in that

sex toys and sexual aids, through means of increasing

sensitivity and overall pleasure, serve to increase sexual

functioning as well as the overall quality of life for users.

American participants within this sample have re-

ported considerate sex toy use, both during solo and

partnered sex. Men and women reported similar rates

of sex toy use, both during solo and partnered sex, al-

though women consistently reported higher usage of

sex toys overall. Similarly, among those who reported

that they have never used sex toys, a decent percentage

reported that they would be willing to try incorporat-

ing them into their masturbatory or partnered sexual

behavior. This data indicates that most American

adults who have not experienced using sex toys would

be willing to try one in the future. The sex toy indus-

try should consider this group of willing individuals

as an entirely separate group of consumers and should

market to this group accordingly. Sex toy shops and

websites are often hypersexualized and intimidating

environments. Further, sex toy shops can be very over-

stimulating, expensive, and confusing for rst-time

buyers, and perhaps a dierent approach to sex toy con

FIPPEN & GAITHER

sumerism would benet those who are willing to try

sex toys but have not yet been able to have that experi-

ence. This approach could include a less overtly sexual

environment, as well as an emphasis on education and

pleasure for all participating individuals, as opposed to

some typical sex shops that advocate for the infantiliza-

tion, domination, and hypersexualization of women.

When compared to the results of Döring &

Poeschl’s (2020) study, participants in the present

study reported higher rates of sex toy use during

masturbation when compared to partnered sex.

However, rates of sex toy use were similar between

German and American participants among items

of partnered sexual activity. The only item in which

Germans scored higher than American participants

was on measures of sex toy use during partnered sex,

in which German men reported higher usage of sex

toys than American male participants. This nd-

ing indicates that perhaps Germany, and Europe at

large, has a more relaxed and sex-positive stance on

sex toys, and thus are used more during partnered sex.

Among participants of the present study, women re-

ported higher rates of sex toy use during both mastur-

bation and partnered sexual activity. Women reported

higher usage of sex toys designed to stimulate the vagi-

na and vulva overall, while men reported higher usage

of toys designed to stimulate the penis and testicles

- which provides support for hypotheses ve and six.

Trends indicate that men are more willing to try all toys

listed in the survey during partnered sex, with the only

statistically signicant nding being that men were

signicantly more willing to introduce toys designed

for the penis and testicles into partnered sexual activity

than women were?. This nding directly counters the

assumption by many women that men are unwilling or

uncomfortable with incorporating sex toys into part-

nered sexual activities (Fahs & Swank, 2013). Open

communication between sexual partners is necessary

to establish willingness and comfortability with in-

corporating sex toys into partnered sexual behaviors.

There exists a toxic, heteronormative belief that most

men are against the incorporation of sex toys into part-

nered sexual activity due to the accompanying belief

that men should be able to completely satisfy their

partner on their own, with their own bodies. However,

the present data is directly contradictory to this harm-

ful belief, as it was found that many men are willing

to incorporate sex toys into partnered sexual activity.

Accompanying this willingness should be education.

Sex toy parties are one safe environment to learn more

about dierent kinds of sexual “aids”. Among the men

in our sample, 13.8% reported that they would be will-

ing to host a sex toy party if given the opportunity,

this was found to be statistically signicant. Because

various state laws (Alabama Anti-Obscenity Enforce-

ment Act, 1998; Texas Public Indecency Act, 1973)

consider the sale of sex toys to be a form of solicitation,

men are often not allowed at sex toy parties. Further,

many sex toy companies, such as Pure Romance, claim

that “having some men in attendance would make

some women uncomfortable” (Sex Toys, 2021). Due

to these hindrances in male attendance to toy parties,

male participants within this study were not asked if

they have ever been invited to attend a party, and were

therefore not asked if they’ve ever attended one nor

about their levels of willingness regarding attending a

party. This data reveals that a decent portion of men

want or are willing to attend a sex toy party to learn

more about and potentially purchase toys for them-

selves and their partners. Male sex toy parties could

be an eective way for more men to learn about and

purchase sex toys within an educational environment.

Further, all individuals should feel comfortable ex-

pressing their desires with their sexual partner and be

receptive to their partner’s desires, because open com-

munication may reveal that they are more willing to

try new sexual experiences than previously thought.

One of the most prevalent ndings of this study is

that, among participants who report ever having expe-

rienced a sexual assault, both men and women report

higher rates of sex toy and sexual aid usage during mas-

turbation and partnered sexual activity, but also report

lower levels of comfortability doing so. This nding is

directly contrary to hypotheses seven and eight, as it was

expected that the trauma of sexual assault would pro-

voke fear of sexual behavior among victims and would

deter them from using sex toys. However, participants

that have been sexually assaulted reported the highest

rates of sex toy usage of all participants, this could be

due to several factors. Victims of sexual assault have

experienced a violation of bodily autonomy that may

take a substantial amount of time to gain back, and sex

toys may be one way for victims to reclaim their sex-

uality. Rather than placing sexual pleasure and other

sexual expectations on another person, sex toys are an

ecient way to gradually increase the intensity or fre-

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

quency of physiological sexual responses and can help

to increase desire. Sexual aids, such as lubricants or

vaginal dilators, could prove useful in increasing com-

fortability or eliciting a sexual response among individ-

uals who may or may not suer from negative implica-

tions, such as trauma or a sexual dysfunction, following

a sexual assault (Kaplan, 1974; Petrak & Hedge, 2002).

However, the nding that those who have ever

experienced a sexual assault, despite using toys at high-

er rates, also reported lower levels of comfortability

during these experiences with toys was unexpected.

Lower comfortability with sexual activity or material

following a sexual assault is common and can be ex-

pected due to the high prevalence of trauma and PTSD

development after an assault (Texas A&M Health,

2019). Similarly, a common reaction to sexual assault is

a change in sexual desire or activity, such as an increase

in the amount of sexual or masturbatory behavior the

victim engages in. Within this sample, a higher rate of

sex toy usage and lower levels of comfortability were

reported among those who have ever been sexually as-

saulted when compared to those who have never been

sexually assaulted. Higher levels of toy use, despite

lower levels of comfortability using these toys, may be

reective of an attempt to regain comfortability with

sexual activities through the use of sex toys. Similarly,

if the sexual assault resulted in a sexual dysfunction,

the use of sex toys could be a means of sexual rehabili-

tation, despite conicting levels of comfort. For exam-

ple, vibrators that are smooth and shorter in length and

circumference may be benecial for patients who deal

with genital, anal, or pelvic pain, or pain during sexual

activity (Rullo et al., 2018). Regardless of why these

rates of toy use and comfort persist among those who

have ever been sexually assaulted, clinicians should

recommend sex toys to clients with caution and guid-

ance to help provide them with the necessary resourc-

es to regain sexual comfortability and condence.

Both men and women who suer from at least

one sexual dysfunction reported lower rates of sex

toy usage during masturbation and partnered sexual

behavior than those who do not suer from a sexual

dysfunction. Lower levels of comfortability were also

reported by the same group of participants, this could

be due to various factors. Individuals who suer from

sexual dysfunctions may feel a sense of embarrassment

or incompetency due to not wanting or not being able

to perform sexually, and this may contribute to lower

levels of comfortability using toys. Participants who

reported ever experiencing a sexual dysfunction may

feel as though sex toys won’t work to increase their

sexual desire or functioning, and some of these partic-

ipants may choose to abstain from any sexual behavior

at all. Sensate focus and related treatments for sexual

dysfunctions have been empirically proven to alleviate

anxiety surrounding sexual activity and performance

(Auteri, 2014; Masters & Johnson, 1980), which

could prove useful among individuals who suer from

sexual dysfunctions that worsen with heightened anxi-

ety. Further, the incorporation of sex toys into sensate

focus exercises could elicit a stronger sexual response

or sexual arousal than normally experienced due to

increased physiological sensitivity (Rullo et al., 2020).

Sensate focus allows an individual to focus purely on

the physiological sensations that make them feel good,

by ridding sexual behavior of expectations of orgasm,

ejaculation, and pressure to please a partner. Further, it

can help those with sexual dysfunctions become more

comfortable with their sexual identity and to better un-

derstand what types of sensations they enjoy the most.

Although not part of our initial analysis, we did

examine the self-perceived positive and negative eects

of sex toy use among participants. There were sub-

stantially more positive eects reported compared to

negative eects. Examples of some positive eects of

sex toy use reported by participants include: “allow-

ing me to be kinky and really bond with my partner,”

“butt plug helped me come out to my friends,” “rab-

bit vibrator allowed for my partner to climax multiple

times after I climaxed,” and “couples vibrator (like we-

vibe), or bullet vibrator during intercourse, helped my

partner to relax, and to climax, enhancing overall en-

joyment.” There were several repeated trends among

self-perceived positive eects of sex toy use. Several

men reported that the use of penetrative sex toys,

such as butt plugs or dildos, helped them to become

more comfortable with their sexuality. Both men and

women reported that the use of couples’ toys, such as

a joint vibrator, has helped to increase the desirability

and frequency of orgasms and strengthened the bond

between partners. Many women reported that the use

of vibrators and/or dildos has helped them to become

more familiar with their bodies and has improved their

sex life by allowing them to better learn which types

of touch they prefer where. Sex toy use can have great

eects on sexual functioning and the strengthening

FIPPEN & GAITHER

aspects of education, sexuality, consent, individual and

interpersonal identity, and learning which techniques

can help a client maximize comfortability and pleasure.

This form of sex therapy may involve sex toys, which

can be utilized at the client’s request to better under-

stand how these sexual aids can increase arousal, plea-

sure, and intimacy alone or between partners. “Most

practitioners will say their client sessions are around

30% touch and 70% non-touch - such as establishing

boundaries, breathwork, nervous system regulation,

embodiment techniques, and movement” (Rowett,

2020). Although met with signicant resistance, sexo-

logical bodywork is increasing in popularity among in-

dividuals who suer from sexual dysfunction, trauma,

or assault-related issues, and shows signicant promise

for the future of sex therapy. However, the ability for

a clinician to touch a client’s body and manipulate

their genitals for purposes of tension redistribution

and sexual education is currently illegal in all states

except California, where only a select few individuals

are licensed to practice sexological bodywork (Rowett,

2020). This is a recent modality of sex therapy and

education, thus accounting for the lack of empirical

research on its benets. However, numerous female

clients have been taking to the internet to blog about

their positive experiences with the practice (Magner,

2017; Dubofsky, 2018). Just as vibration techniques

were used as a clinical means of treating hysteria

among 20th-century women (Horowitz, 2020), sex

toy use in sex therapy or sexological bodywork shows

promise for the treatment of sexual dysfunctions

or issues surrounding sex following a sexual assault.

Limitations

This study had several limitations. Because data

was collected in the form of an anonymous survey,

the data relies on self-report measures of sexuality

and sexual behavior. The survey link was posted on

Reddit.com/samplesize, and thus relied on conve-

nience sampling. Actual rates of comfortability may

vary from those that the participants self-reported,

potentially due to a desire to provide socially desir-

able data or because those who use Reddit may have

dierent inclinations to use toys. Further, there were

many more women in the sample than men, and thus

the data received from male participants may not be

as representative of the general population. Most

men within the sample (61%) reported ever having

used a sex toy during masturbation, and this refutes

of interpersonal relationships which is reective of

the Positive Sexuality and Positive Technology frame-

works. Sex toys have only increased in popularity and

functionality since they became technologically inno-

vative. These toys have shown promise to increase var-

ious aspects of sexuality, such as sensitivity and overall

pleasure, and can help to restructure an individual’s

perception of their sexuality and sexual functioning.

However, there were also a considerable amount

of negative self-perceived eects of sex toy use report-

ed among participants. Examples of negative eects

reported include “I feel that I may be more comfort-

able with toys [than] the real thing sometimes,” “when

I’m with a partner that traditionally doesn’t use toys,

I can feel judged a bit when suggesting them,” and

“felt guilty about masturbating with a toy larger than

my husband’s penis.” Negative experiences, however

slight, with sex toys during an intimate and vulnera-

ble sexual encounter can signicantly hinder one’s

perception of and potential future use of sex toys

and sexual behavior overall. Several women within

this study reported that they felt judged or ashamed

of their sex toy use, during masturbation or partnered

sex, for various reasons including their partner’s per-

ception of toy use, and embarrassment of requiring

toys to increase sensitivity or feeling like they depend

on toys for pleasure during sexual activity. Thoughtful

discussion is necessary between partners for the prop-

er acquisition and incorporation of sex toys into their

individual or joint sex lives. Sex toys are not the main

attraction of sexual activity, but are merely a means of

increasing pleasure and sensitivity, and can even bring

a sense of newness or excitement into partnered sex.

The introduction of sex toys and sexual aids into

sex therapy is both a controversial and ethical issue.

An increasing number of clinicians are recommend-

ing sex toys and sexual aids for individuals who suer

from sexual dysfunctions relating to sexual assault

or cancer-related treatments (Bober et al., 2019), as

these tools can increase sensitivity and physiological

response to sexual stimulation. Aside from merely rec-

ommending clients to use sex toys and sexual aids at

their own discretion, many clinicians are advocating

for the advancement of sex therapy to include sexolog-

ical bodywork, which is a form of educational sex ther-

apy that potentially allows for one-way sensual touch

between the clinician and the client, although not al-

ways (Rowett, 2020). Sexological bodywork involves

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

the assumed belief that men are more hesitant to

use sex toys. However, due to the limited number

of men within the sample, actual statistics may vary.

The present study was forced to exclude partici-

pants from the analysis who identied as anything

other than a man or woman. 3.7% of the sample (n =

12) self-identied as an “other” gender, but because

this sample was so small they were excluded from the

study. Future research could focus on other-gendered

participants to better understand the prevalence and

characteristics of their sex toy use. As discussed by

Fahs and Swank (2013), nonheterosexual and oth-

er-gendered individuals may not emphasize phallo-

centrism and male dominance during sexual activity

with a partner, and may feel more inclined to use sex

toys as a means of campy and subversive pleasure.

Because this survey and individual items were

created by the researchers, as well as borrowed from

the work of Döring and Poeschl (2020), there are no

psychometric properties to report. However, using

standardized measures to assess prevalence, com-

fortability, and willingness regarding sex toys could

have provided stronger research support for this study.

Finally, the participants of this study were large-

ly young white college students. Older individu-

als or individuals without technological access may

not have been able to access the survey link because

it was posted to Reddit and Ball State University’s

Communication page. Our study’s lack of diver-

sity could be expanded upon in future research,

emphasizing minority or older cohort sex toy use.

Implications for Future Research

This study could be expanded to include a larg-

er minority sample, including sexual, gendered, and

racial minorities, to better understand their sex toy

use and how they became socialized to utilize these

toys. Further, future research could focus on an old-

er cohort sample, as the rate of sexual dysfunctions

tends to increase exponentially with age. Sex toys

could elicit heightened sensitivity or arousal from

individuals who suer from age-related sexual dys-

functions and could further help connect partners.

With respect to sexual dysfunctions, future re-

search could examine how sex toys and sexual aids

can be incorporated into sex therapy to help increase

physiological responses following a sexual assault. Sex

toys could be incorporated into sensate focus exercises

to increase sensitivity and pleasure for the individual,

allowing them to focus solely on the pleasurable

sensations. To combat the physiological complica-

tions of sexual dysfunction, clinical psychologists

may recommend or prescribe various sexual aids

to use either alone or with a partner. These sexu-

al aids may include vibrators, dilators, Kegel balls,

and dildos, and successive approximations may be

utilized until the client gradually becomes more

comfortable with sensual touching, and eventual-

ly, sexual intercourse. However, the introduction

of sex toys into sex therapy recommendations for

victims of sexual assault should be predated with

caution and a thoughtful discussion between the

client and the clinician, as some of these individu-

als may suer from PTSD (Yu Yip & Yuen, 2010).

Conclusion

The ndings of this study indicate that a sub-

stantial number of American adults have ever used

a sex toy during solo or partnered sex. Among wom-

en, the most used sex toys during masturbation in-

cluded toys designed for the stimulation of the vagi-

na and vulva, lubricants, and erotic lingerie. Among

men, the most used sex toys and sexual aids during

masturbation included lubricants, toys designed for

the stimulation of the penis and testicles (see Table

2), and toys designed for the stimulation of the vagi-

na and vulva. Men and women were about equally

likely to have used lubricants, remedies for enhanc-

ing arousal, toys designed for the stimulation of the

penis and testicles, and toys for bondage and S&M

during partnered sexual activity. Similarly, among

participants who have never used a sex toy, a signif-

icant portion of this subsample would be willing

to incorporate sexual aids into solo or partnered

sexual behavior in the future. Nearly an identical

percentage of men and women who have been sex-

ually assaulted reported using a sex toy during mas-

turbation, and men reported slightly higher rates of

toy use during masturbation compared to women.

However, both men and women who have been sex-

ually assaulted reported lower levels of comfortabil-

ity during their previous experiences using sex toys.

Future research could explore how sex toys could

be utilized as a method of treatment for sexual dys-

functions or implications following a sexual assault.

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SEX TOY USE IN THE US

Table 1

Frequencies among Men and Women that Have or are Willing to Use Sex Toys

Note. Bolded are signicant at p = .002; dashes represent data that was not obtained or is not relevant to

this study.

FIPPEN & GAITHER

Table 2

Percentage of Participants Who Reported Using Each Type of Toy by Gender

Note. Bolded are signicant at p < .001

SEX TOY USE IN THE US

Table 3

Means and Standard Deviations for Comfort Items Among Men and Women

Note. Bolded are signicant at p < .001; lower means represent higher levels of comfortability.