Soaring: A Journal of Undergraduate Research Soaring: A Journal of Undergraduate Research
Volume 2024 Article 2
2024
The Factors Causing High Food Insecurity Rates in U.S. The Factors Causing High Food Insecurity Rates in U.S.
Undergraduate Students Undergraduate Students
Natalie S. Byrd
St. John Fisher University
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Byrd, Natalie S. (2024) "The Factors Causing High Food Insecurity Rates in U.S. Undergraduate Students,"
Soaring: A Journal of Undergraduate Research
: Vol. 2024, Article 2.
Available at: https://<sherpub.sjf.edu/soaring/vol2024/iss1/2
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The Factors Causing High Food Insecurity Rates in U.S. Undergraduate Students The Factors Causing High Food Insecurity Rates in U.S. Undergraduate Students
Abstract Abstract
The cliché of a college student surviving off ramen noodles sheds light on a deeper issue — high rates of
food insecurity among undergraduate college/university students in the United States. There have been
countless studies in recent years exploring the hidden causes of why an estimated 40% of students
experience food insecurity as of 2022. These studies conclude three main reoccurring factors causing
these high rates: costs, accessibility, and demographic characteristics. Food insecurity rates are
important for higher education o>cials to address due to the countless physical and mental health,
academic, and equity implications for the students.
Keywords Keywords
Food-Insecurity, university, college, students, food, equity, cost, accessibility, demographic
Cover Page Footnote Cover Page Footnote
The author has no con=icts of interests to report. No funding was used to support the creation or writing
of this review paper. The author is a student at St. John Fisher University.
This <rst-year research is available in Soaring: A Journal of Undergraduate Research: https://<sherpub.sjf.edu/
soaring/vol2024/iss1/2
The Factors Causing High Food Insecurity Rates in U.S. Undergraduate Students
1. Introduction
According to the United States
Department of Agricultures, food insecurity
occurs when a person reports their food to be of
“reduced quality, variety, or desirability” while
experiencing “disrupted eating patterns” with/or
a “reduced food intake” (Coleman-Jensen,
2020). In many studies aiming to measure food
insecurity, a standard 6-question food insecurity
questionnaire developed by the USDA is used to
ensure validity and reliability. The participant is
expected to answer “often true,” “sometimes
true,” “never true,” or “DK or refused”. to the
six proposed questions. These questions include,
“The food that (I/we) bought just didn’t last, and
(I/we) didn’t have money to get more,” “(I/we)
couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals,” “In the
last 12 months, did (you/other adults in your
household) ever cut the size of your meals or
skip meals because there wasn't enough money
for food?”; “If yes, how often did this happen —
almost every month, some months but not every
month, or in only 1 or 2 months?”; “In the last
12 months, did you ever eat less than you felt
you should because there wasn't enough money
for food?”; “In the last 12 months, were you
ever hungry but didn't eat because there wasn't
enough money for food?” (USDA, 2022).
The joke about starving students creates
a perception that there's not really an issue with
food insecurity in colleges (Broton, 2022). With
the number of college students suffering from
food insecurity on the rise, universities and
health professions must acknowledge the high
rates of food insecurity, and develop strategies
to help. (Aslup 2023; Haskett, 2020;
McCartney, 2021). Not only will university
intervention help disproportionate health equity
among students, but also can increase
graduation rates and support student retention
(Moore, 2021; Olauson, 2018). It is important to
address considering that eating behaviors can
negatively impact physical, mental, and
cognitive/scholastic function (Reuter, 2021).
Overall, there are three main factors
causing high food-insecurity rates among
college/university students in the United States:
costs, accessibility to food, and multiple
demographic characteristics.
2. Cost of food affecting food insecurity
rates
A 2018 report from Temple University
and Wisconsin HOPE Lab claims that 26% of
college students suffer from food insecurity
(Alsup, 2023). In addition, a survey of 1,374
undergraduate students showed that cost
concerns were paramount among students with
low food security scores (Weaver, 2022). These
both highlight the fact that financial constraints
are a big source of food insecurity for many
college students. The number of hours they
work, meal plan costs, and a variety of other
expenses during college including textbooks,
tuition, loans, and personal expenses can affect
a student's ability to afford food. When money
gets tight, food is often the first expense to go
(Kolowich, 2015). In a survey study with
students at University of North Carolina, 65%
indicated being food-insecure, while 40.8% of
those reported skipping meals due to the lack of
money to purchase food (Waity, 2020). This
puts students in a difficult situation of having to
make choices about how to allocate their limited
financial resources — and it doesn’t always get
to go to food (Weaver, 2022).
2.1. Working students
In recent times there has been an
increase in “non-traditional” students in college
enrollment such as students who are older, have
dependents, and those in minority groups. This
“non-traditional” title also includes students
who work full-time to support themselves while
taking classes (Bell, 2012; Nazmi, 2022). In
2015, 43% of full-time students and 78% of
part-time students were working to help with the
cost of tuition, rent, and food (National Center
for Education Statistics, 2017). From a student
health services survey of 1,359 students, the
second most popular response to dealing with
food-insecurity – behind getting meals from
family and friends – was getting a job or
increasing their work hours (Olauson, 2018).
Low socioeconomic-status students were found
to work more hours a week and subsequently
spend less time studying, less activity
involvement, lower grades and incomes, and
lower educational aspirations (Walpole, 2003).
One study, which surveyed 2,634
undergraduate students at a public university,
assessed the relationship between demographic
and financial factors and several outcomes of
interest — such as food insecurity. The study
suggests that students that are actively employed
were 1.44 times more likely to experience food
insecurity than those who were unemployed.
(Robbins, 2022). In another study with 338
undergraduate survey results at University of
Mississippi, employment had a statistically
significant positive association with food
insecurity – especially among female students
(Halfacre, 2021). An additional study conducted
at multiple universities via survey also found
that employed students were at higher risk for
food insecurity than unemployed students
(Patton-Lopez, 2014; Walsh-Dilley, 2022).
However, many college students that also
experience food insecurity may not have a well-
defined source of income or may receive their
income from multiple sources including
employment, parental support, financial aid, and
other loans (Zigmont, 2022). Contrastingly, a
different study had undergraduate students
record a 24-hour food record. The median 24-
hour cost of the student’s food was $12.42, but
those who worked 20+ hours a week had a
higher diet cost than those who worked less or
were unemployed. This suggests that students
that work more can afford more food and
therefore are less likely to suffer from food
insecurity. However, that is not always a
feasible solution since working long hours can
negatively impact academic performance and
mental well-being (Weaver, 2022). Students that
are food-insecure are also more likely to be
working evening shifts, which hinders their
ability to access dining halls during their open
times (Mei, 2021). Yet working is sometimes
necessary for food-insecure students; not only
for the money, but to qualify for SNAP
(Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program)
help. SNAP requires their applicants to work
20+ hours per week, which can disqualify a lot
of students busy with classes or unable to find
work (Snap, 2021).
2.2. Meal plan costs
Even with on-campus dining and meal
plans helping prevent food insecurity, some
students struggle to afford a meal plan and
therefore end up struggling with food insecurity.
In one study, out of the students identified to
struggle with low food security, 69% stated the
biggest obstacle was the cost of food (Weaver,
2022). Colleges and universities tend to provide
three different types of meal plans. A block
plan: offers a set number of meals per week, an
unlimited plan: unlimited dining-hall access, or
pre-paid: the cost of the meal is deducted from
their card (Barger, 2015). Students that could
afford higher block plans were able to obtain
food with higher nutritional value. While those
that couldn’t consume more food from fast food
restaurants (Dingman, 2014). The USDA
outlines four different levels of cost for a meal
plan: the thrifty meal plan ($270 a month), the
low-cost meal plan ($276 a month), the
moderate-cost meal plan ($342 a month), and
the liberal meal plan ($425 a month) (Hanson,
2022). Which brings the average meal plan cost
to be between $3,000 and $5,500 a year for
students (Wood, 2022). Although, meal plan
prices can get even more expensive than that. At
Wellesley College, the mandatory meal plan
costs $7,442 for a year. Covering their three
meals a day for around 8 months, that comes out
to be about $18.75 per day (Mathewson, 2021).
At the University of California, the lowest meal
plan offering 10-21 meals per week would not
be enough to meet dietary needs. Although,
students that struggle with money, were found
to be more likely to choose this limited meal
plan (Quinton, 2016). These meal plan prices
aren’t always affordable for many students,
leading them to higher food insecurity rates. A
study based on student interviews found that in
colleges where first-year students were required
to have a meal plan, many students reported no
longer being able to pay for a food plan after
their first year (Kim, 2022). One participant in a
study of 1,278 community college students
reported that food on campus (such as in dining
halls) to be more expensive than the food
outside of campus (Ahmed, 2022). On top of
everything, a survey at University of Ohio found
that 48% of students report having insufficient
money to buy enough food (Twill 2016).
2.3. Miscellaneous costs
Food insecurity is a significant issue on
college campuses, and the factors that contribute
to it are complex. Just the costs of meal plans
and other food from off-campus restaurants or
grocery stores aren’t the only costs
undergraduate college students are faced with.
70% of college students surveyed by the Student
Financial Wellness study expressed stress over
their personal finances (Weaver, 2022). These
other miscellaneous costs students have can
affect the amount of money they have left to
spend on food. The cost of tuition, fees, rent,
transportation, supplies, and enough food to get
by, leaves very little left for students to purchase
their required textbooks (Weaver, 2022). A
report showed that textbook prices climbed by
88% between 2006 and 2016, which is a
necessary cost for any college student. On
average, students spend annually approximately
$1,200 on books and other school supplies
(Becker, 2022). Some students reported
assessing the true value of the text and deciding
which is more important — food to survive or
buying a book for class. Yet a study found that
those who reported sacrificing food for these
educational expenses, reported lower grade
point averages and were more likely to suspend
their studies (Martinez, 2018). The cost of
tuition and fees is another big problem for
students in affording food. Higher education
costs have continued to rise over the past several
decades, even though average household
incomes haven’t had as much change (Goldrick,
2016). Since the last 1980s, tuition has tripled
for public universities, and more than doubled
for private universities. While the price of room
and board has increased by 28% in the last
decade at public universities (College Board,
2022).
The prevalence of food insecurity is just
as prevalent in private universities as in public
universities due to the costs, although private
universities are less represented in research on
food insecurity (Jack, 2019). A study with
survey data from 359 undergraduates
demonstrated undergraduates at private
institutions experienced food insecurity at either
similar or higher rates than students at public
institutions (Keefe, 2021). Similarly, students
attending college typically incur significant
debt, even while struggling to afford basic
necessities such as food (Weaver, 2022).
Students that owe more than $10,000 in student
loans were more likely to be food insecure than
students owing less than $1,000 (Zigmont,
2022). A survey of 338 undergraduate students
at the University at Mississippi backed this idea
that loan borrowing was positively associated
with very low food security (Halfacre, 2021). A
Chi-Square analysis showed that students not
receiving family financial support (I.e. those
taking out student loans) were significantly
associated with increased odds of basic needs
insecurity and/or food insecurity (Robbins,
2022). Adding onto the necessary college costs,
spending on non-necessary items can affect a
student’s available budget for food and the
chances of food insecurity. One study used a
USDA 6-question food insecurity screen and
New Vital Signs Food Label to measure food
security and literacy in 560 university students.
As a result, 35.8% of those students were
characterized as food insecure, but those who
prioritized spending on alcohol had higher odds
of experiencing it. An even deeper finding was
those who highly prioritized buying alcohol had
increased odds of being food insecure than those
who prioritized shopping. (Cuy, 2020). Poor
shopping skills can increase the risk of food
insecurity as newly-independent college
students have no prior experience on how to
budget, and understand bargain hunting
(Adamovic, 2022; Meldrum, 2006). This
showed that poor budgeting — or a lack of a
budget — is a major contributor to food
insecurity on college campuses (Cuy, 2020).
Furthermore, in a survey conducted in the Fall
of 2012, about 80% of 21.6 million college
students nationwide admitted to drinking
alcohol during the semester. Due to its
prevalence in the college lifestyle, students
spend about $42 a month on alcohol. In the
extreme case of a binge drinker, this cost could
expand to $75 per month or higher. Yet alcohol
isn’t the only fluid drug devouring college
students’ food budgets — so is caffeine. 92% of
college students have consumed caffeine in the
past year. If a student was to buy coffee every
day, they would end up spending about $63 a
month, or $15 a month if they exclusively made
it at home (Hanson, 2022). Students that
prioritize spending money on alcohol or caffeine
will subsequently have less money to spend on
their food.
2.4. St. John Fisher University
The cost of colleges/universities can
have a significant impact on the food students
can afford, and therefore their chances of food
insecurity. This is a common theme among
schools, including a local private university, St.
John Fisher University in upstate New York. As
of 2023, the average cost of tuition per year is
$38,566, already imposing a significant
financial burden on students. There are
countless other higher-education costs including
$9,182 on average for housing per year, as well
as costs for transportation and textbooks, which
come to $500 and $650, on average per year
respectively. (University SJF, 2023). The
required meal plan for on-campus residents is an
additional expense coming out to be another
$5,160 a year on average. All of these added
costs add up quickly and lower the budgets
students have to spend on food, leading to food
insecurity.
The amount of money coming in from
work, the cost of a meal plan, and other endless
miscellaneous university costs and meal-plan
prices are clearly a big issue hindering food
security in college students. Although this is not
the only issue; even if a student can afford the
unending costs, they could have low access to
this necessary and nutritious food.
3. Access to food affecting food insecurity
rates
Even though those participating in meal
plans are less likely to be food-insecure, lack of
food options, open hours, and distance can make
meal-plan use difficult for students (Zein, 2019).
Not only is the increasing cost of food an issue
for college students, but on and off-campus
accessibility also prohibits students from
obtaining the food they need.
3.1. Dining halls
Although college campuses have at least
one dining hall, sometimes their accessibility or
food options are poor. Dining halls often do not
provide viable accessibility to nutritious food to
food-insecure college students. (Wood, 2022).
Participation in a meal plan was found to not
prevent experiences on food security, but had
similar percentages of food-insecurity to
students not on an institution-sponsored meal
plan (Duke, 2023). An American College Health
Association (ACHA) survey in 2018 reported
that 71.8% of college students daily had two or
fewer servings of fruits and vegetables.
Meanwhile, the recommended daily dosage is
two cups of fruit and two and a half cups of
vegetables per day. This makes sense
considering it was found that low food security
is associated with less intake of fruit, and higher
intake of sugar (Leung, 2019). From one study,
an interviewed student reported no fruit at their
campus dining locations on multiple occasions
(Kim, 2022). These studies show that dining
halls sometimes do not always provide a wide
selection of nutritious foods students need
(Clerkin, 2021). One participant in a mixed-
method data collection of 1,278 students wrote
that their campus dining lacked both healthy
options and vegan/vegetarian options to
accommodate different students (Ahmed, 2022).
But, participation in college meal plans does
increase when universities offer menus that
accommodate more needs such as vegan,
vegetarian, nut-free, gluten-free, and kosher
(Barger, 2015).
Along with a poor variety of foods,
dining hall hours are also widely inconvenient
for students, leaving some without food. In a
study of 3,000 college students across 12 states,
the prevalence of food insecurity averaged 48%.
One student in the study attributed this to dining
hours being “awful and inconvenient” despite
many students on campus holding meal plans
(Weaver, 2022). Another study showed that
when universities respond to the student demand
for 24-hour food access, meal plan participation
will increase. Students in a variety of activities,
jobs, and internships want longer dining hall
hours. Other universities are catching on to this
idea to extend on-campus food location hours to
increase food accessibility for students. Colgate
University and Queens College in New York
both now have 24-hour convenience store
locations on campus. With a simple badge
swipe, students can choose from a variety of
nutritious food options at any time of day
(Barger, 2015). Even still, campuses are often
limited to only one of these small on-campus
markets which makes those prices more
expensive for students and may also have
conflicting hours with student schedules (Fortin,
2021; Zigmont, 2022). Prices of the food items
on these on-campus markets are between 1.3
and 6.4 times higher compared to off-campus
stores. For example, a healthy option of canned
green beans cost a student $3.25 at the campus
market but range $0.88-$1.08 at normal grocery
stores (Zigmont, 2022). These on-campus
dining locations are crucial for college students
since residential housing is not built to sustain
students cooking or cleaning dishes. Although
better access to these cooking facilities were
proven to be negatively associated with very
low food security among female students
(Halfacre, 2021). In conjunction with on-
campus dining halls and markets, typically on-
campus college club meetings provide food for
students during the event. Because of this, some
food-insecure students rely on this source of
food. One student reported going to a republican
club meeting at their school, not because of their
political affiliation, but because of the chance of
free food (Kolowich, 2015).
3.2. On-campus resources
Dining halls aren’t the only food
resources on campus, but even with popular
food resources – such as food pantries – it still
isn’t enough to fight food insecurity among
students. Students reported using both formal
and informal on-campus programs ranging from
food pantries, campus events, and the use of
SNAP (Fortin, 2021). The College and
University Food Bank Alliance (CUFBA) was
designed to address food insecurity on
campuses. This created a network of 1,000+
campus pantries, making them the most
common response to food insecurity on
campuses. They are a critical way that
universities manage poverty on campus but
aren’t able to eliminate food insecurity alone
(Broton, 2022). There are several big issues
with campus food pantries. In a study of 1,359
undergraduate students, less than 1% of students
had accessed their food bank in the last 12
months, and instead resorted to other ways to
get food (Olauson, 2018).
According to one study, food pantries
lack access to the necessary fruits and
vegetables for recommended nutrition. In some
cases, this could be due to a lack of donations,
or because most food pantries only take in non-
perishable items and not fresh produce.
(Clerkin, 2021). In a study of interviews using
students accessing food pantries, 5 out of the 9
students mentioned throwing away 25%-50% of
the food received because it was past the
expiration date (Lee, 2020). On top of this,
many students from both low and high-food-
security groups in a survey mentioned a stigma
associated with food pantry use, creating a
deterrent for students to utilize them. Another
inhibitor to using food pantries is that twenty-
four colleges in Texas found a 16.6% reduction
in the number of campus food pantries due to
the COVID-19 pandemic and campus closures
in 2020 (Ahmed, 2021; Zottarelli, 2021). Many
students are also unaware of their college’s food
pantry whereabouts, hours, and availability
(Moore, 2021; Weaver, 2022). Continuing-
generation college students had a decreased
likelihood of food insecurity by 38% if they
were aware of their campus food resources
(Olfert, 2021).
Beyond food pantries, a survey of 1,278
community college students reported the most
frequently used source of support with 28.20%
was SNAP (Supplemental Nutrition Assistance
Program; Ahmed, 2022). Another study using a
regression model showed that SNAP
participants experienced a 63% decrease in food
insecurity in 6 months use (Nazmi, 2022).
Although, universities in the CUNY system
push to educate students about food stamp
eligibility but worry it is still not reaching
enough students (Kolowich, 2015). So even
though there are plenty of food pantries and
resources nationwide on college campuses, the
lack of nutrition and dissemination of
knowledge to students, as well as the stigma
keep food insecure students from using them.
Due to the noticeable issues with college food
pantries, some groups of students from different
colleges and universities have decided to make
their own changes.
One example is the Swipe Out Hunger
program which donates unused student meal
swipes to students experiencing food insecurity
(Wood, 2022). A further example is at Bowdoin
College in Maine where three students realized
the no supply of, but high demand from students
for late-night eating options. They created their
own food truck that has made its way to
campuses across the nation, conquering the
issues of lack of dining options and open hours
on college campuses (Domonell, 2012). At
Western Oregon, students have created and run
their own food pantries where other students in
need can shop for free (Kolowich, 2015). At
Columbia University, students created a
Facebook page called “CU Meal Share”
dedicated to first-generation and low-income
students. Columbia students could volunteer to
connect with an in-need student from the page
and swipe them into dining halls (Kolowich,
2015). Another group of students from survey
results saw too much food going to waste after
scheduled on-campus catered events. So, they
made an app for 451 enrolled students to receive
real time announcements of location and type of
food left over from events for them to pick up
(Frank, 2021).
3.3. Off-campus transportation
Another factor hindering food
accessibility to students is transportation to off-
campus food options. Food insecure students are
more likely to report unstable housing, less
likely to own a car, and more likely to use
public transportation. Therefore, a college
campus’s transportation resources (typically
being shuttles or buses) can dictate if a student
has access to food or not (Waity, 2020). When
faced with high prices of on-campus dining
options, students are likely to look off-campus
for more affordable options such as fast-food
restaurants. One study using negative binomial
regression found that the number of meals
obtained from fast food restaurants was
positively associated with financial access and
negatively associated with health consciousness
(Dingman, 2014). Although, limited
transportation options can even prohibit this
option. One study concluded that food-insecure
students were likely to state that transportation
was a main barrier to obtaining food and/or
groceries (Zigmont, 2022). Grocery stores
within walking distance from college campuses
were found to be more expensive than grocery
stores located farther away, which needed
transportation (Kim, 2022). On top of this,
students in California universities reported
transportation contributing to their food
insecurity and poor diet intake (Crutchfield,
2018). In an additional study of California
students, slightly more food secure students
reported lack of transportation in a survey of
8,705 students (Martinez, 2018). Those who live
off campus with a car could in theory have more
access to food options, but even then will incur
significant transportation costs including repair
bills or gas, that could impact their food budget.
Moreover, having a car was found to be
associated with more financial resources, and
therefore higher food security (Soldavini,
2022).
3.4. St. John Fisher University
Access to food is a problem at many
higher education institutions, including local
private university, St. John Fisher University in
upstate New York. Dining hall access and
options play a significant role in food insecurity
rates on campus. St. John Fisher University’s
main dining hall has limited hours of three meal
periods per day (7:30a.m - 10:00a.m, 11:00a.m -
2:30p.m, 4:30p.m - 7:30p.m) (Dine on Campus,
2023). These dining hall hours/access makes it
difficult for students to grab food on their breaks
in between classes or after any late classes or
work. Taking food out with you from the dining
hall is also prohibited, making it impossible to
plan ahead/meal prep for those times the dining
hall is closed to students. This decreases the
window of time students can access food, and if
it doesn’t line up with their schedule, they are
more likely to be food-insecure.
There are several other retail locations
around the St. John Fisher campus selling
primarily to-go drinks, snacks, fruit, and other
pre-prepared food. However, chips and junk
food are significantly less expensive (average
price of $1.50) than fresh fruit and vegetables
(average price of $4). This makes students on a
budget less likely to be able to choose the
nutritious option. Furthermore, on-campus
resources play a big part in food insecurity on
campuses. St. John Fisher University has a food
pantry located on campus that was created in
2017 from donations from faculty and staff,
students, or anyone else in the community
(University SJF, 2023). However, a lack of
education about these resources can counteract
the purpose. Personally, I was unaware of this
food pantry and where to find it until I looked it
up on Google – which decreases the chances of
food-insecure students accessing this resource.
Adding on to this, the food pantry was not
advertised to students during freshman
orientation (consisting of three days of
information) or prospective student tours.
Access to transportation to other off-
campus food locations is important to food
insecurity rates. At St. John Fisher University,
shuttles are offered Wednesday nights, and
Saturday and Sunday afternoons to grocery
stores such as Wegmans, Trader Joe's, and
Target. In addition to campus-sponsored
transportation, the university offers free
Regional Transit Service bus passes at the
campus bookstore using your student ID card to
additional off-campus stores and locations
(University SJF, 2023). This helps students that
don’t have access to their own transportation
access places to purchase groceries, decreasing
the likelihood of being food insecure. Although,
there is very little education on this resource and
was also never mentioned at freshmen
orientation. This much campus transit service
isn’t typically offered at all universities.
College students' overall access to dining
halls, campus transportation, and other on-
campus resources can really affect their food
security status. This gives even more reason
why higher-education implementation of better
dining hall hours and options, transportation
access, and expansion of college food pantries
and nutrition literacy is imperative (Moore,
2021).
4. Demographics affecting food insecurity
rates
Food insecurity – defined as being
unable to access sufficient nutritious food – is
heavily influenced by sociodemographic factors
including race/ethnicity and income (Mei,
2021). The food that college students can obtain
can even come down to their different
demographics. Dynamics across U.S. college
campuses are continuing to change, including an
increase in low-socioeconomic status and first-
generation students (Cooper, 2018). This
increase of enrollment of marginalized students
is across all institutions including private
universities (Keefe, 2021). Although, college
students are still primarily white or caucasian
and male, making up 51.6% and 56%
respectively of all students attending higher-
education institutions (Hanson, 2023). Things
such as minority status (in race/ethnicity,
gender, and sexuality), social class, and student
status (including class, first-generation status
and international students) can all affect food-
insecurity rates. Understanding these at-risk
populations is essential to provide proper help
for those in need (Cook, 2008).
4.1. Race, gender, and sexuality
On college campuses, minority
communities are more commonly associated
with higher food insecurity rates (Myers, 2017).
Students who identified as black, indigenous, a
person of color, LGBTQ+, or women, were
more likely to report food-insecurity problems
(Baker-Smith, 2020). Focusing on race, multiple
studies found that African-American students
were more likely to be food insecure than their
caucasian student peers (Dubick, 2016). This
food-insecurity rate increases even more when
the African-American students are also first-
generation students (Zigmont, 2022). Black
first-generation students were 296% more likely
to be food insecure than white first-generation
students (Olfert, 2021). In a survey of 351
students attending historically black higher-
education institutions, 3 in 4 students (72.9%)
reported food-insecurity in the past year. This
exceeded the estimates among students at
predominantly white institutions (Duke, 2023).
Another study found significant
differences in race between those in the “very
low food security” group and the “high food
security” group. 81.7% of African American
students and 65% of Hispanic students were
found in the very low food security group
(Weaver, 2022). Another study of 8,705
undergraduate students found food insecurity
was the highest among Hispanic students,
followed by black, mixed-race, Asian, then
lastly white students (Martinez, 2018). From a
survey of 359 undergraduate students, Hispanic
students were 4.5 times that of white students to
be food insecure (Keefe, 2021). Although those
from low-income families are more likely to
work during college, significant labor market
discrimination against Black, Latinx,
Indigenous, other People of Color, women, and
transgender individuals impedes their ability to
work throughout college and afford food prices
(Broton, 2022).
Switching focus, another study
collecting a 24-hour food record from college
students, food group expenditure differed
significantly by sex just as employment status
and special dietary needs did (McCartney,
2021). Compared to food-secure women, food-
insecure women had lower intakes of necessary
food groups and nutrients (Mei, 2021). Adding
onto increased rates of food insecurity in
women, a cross-sectional survey study of 78
female NCAA Division 1 athletes found that
one in three were food-insecure, despite even
having increased university support/attention
(Douglas, 2022). This difference of food
security among sexes can possibly be attributed
to females being more likely to report financial
insecurity, and men having more positive
outlooks of their well-being and financial
situation (Kettley, 2008). Sexuality also plays a
big role in food security since many LGBTQ+
students report experiencing a loss of family
support when coming out (Walsh-Dilley, 2022).
In a survey of 2,655 students at the University
of New Mexico, it was found that gay, lesbian,
and bisexual students were more likely than
straight students to experience food insecurity.
In gay and lesbian students alone, it was over
twice the odds of straight students (Walsh-
Dilley, 2022). A similar study of 359
undergraduate students found genderqueer or
transgender identifying students have 4.1 times
the odds of experiencing food insecurity as
students who identify as women (Keefe, 2021).
4.2. Social background
A student’s social background can also
determine what type of food they are able to
access in college. Low-income students have
now surpassed middle-income students by 3%
in college enrollment rates (NCES, 2017).
Although financial aid and scholarships can help
cover the cost of food and other expenses for
them, scholarships have been unable to keep up
with rising college costs. These lower-income
students receiving this financial aid were found
in survey results to be significantly more likely
to be food insecure (Adamovic, 2022). In
different survey data, Pell Grant recipients
(awarded based on income) had twice the odds
of being food insecure (Keefe, 2021). Assuming
generability to U.S. colleges, a study from
China looked at students’ canteen consumption
and found it was feasible to classify the students
in the study into different economic levels and
financial aid needs by analyzing their
consumption data (Yang, 2022). Additionally,
the rates of food insecurity are proven to be
higher among those with low incomes, or those
who grew up in poverty or foster care (Broton,
2022).
In a study of undergraduate students,
83% were below the poverty line, in which
49.5% of those students experienced food
insecurity (Keefe, 2021). In a study with
University of California students, about ⅕ of the
students reported a childhood history with food
insecurity. Students that reported this were more
often in the food-insecure category (Martinez,
2018). Of first-generation students, those that
also experienced childhood food insecurity due
to poverty are 214% more likely to be food
insecure during college than first-generation
students that didn’t experience food insecurity
in their childhood (Olfert, 2021). Another factor
determining a student’s social class are those
with dependent children; which make up 26%
(or 4.8 million) of college undergraduates in the
U.S. (Lero, 2007; Noll, 2017). Specifically,
community colleges enroll nearly half the
amount of these student-parents (Noll, 2017).
Fifty-three percent of these students with
dependents were found from a student health
services survey to experience high rates of food
insecurity (Olauson, 2018). A reason for this is
many food bank dependent students reported
shielding their children from the negative effects
from food insecurity, and instead sacrificing
their own needs (Lee, 2020).
4.3. First-generation, international, and class
statuses
Statuses at the student’s college such as
being a first-generation college student,
international student, or class (freshman-senior)
can affect their food security status. First-
generation college students typically come from
difficult socioeconomic backgrounds, which are
similar factors that influence food security status
(Olfert, 2021). In 2019, it was reported that
10.5% of U.S. households experienced food
security, but among first-generation college
students, that percentage was about 16% higher
(Zigmont, 2022). Furthermore, first-generation
college students' food insecurity rate is 15.7%
higher than continuing-generation students
(Olfert, 2021). Another study showed that of
students with at least one parent with some
college but no degree, 19% of them were food
insecure (Dubick, 2016). In another study, it
was found that first-generation students were
more often found in the “very low food
security” group at 66.3% than in the “high food
security group” (Weaver, 2022). First-
generation students are less likely to receive
financial support from their families than their
peers, and instead rely on financial aid. Yet
students who receive financial aid do not have
enough money to finance their own education
while covering the cost of food and living,
resulting in food insecurity (Meldrum, 2006).
International students also experience
high rates of food insecurity. From a
questionnaire to 5,430 students at U.S.
Southeastern universities, ¼ of international
students were found to be food insecure
(Soldavani, 2022). A possible reason for this is
international students typically are required to
pay the full cost of tuition to attend US
universities/colleges, leaving little money left
over for other expenses such as food (Hegarty,
2014). In the student health services survey at
UofS, 58% of their international students
reported experiencing food insecurity in the last
12 months, and were 2x more likely than non-
international students to experience this
(Olauson, 2018). A student's class at the school
is also significantly associated with worrying
food would run out. Compared to having
Freshman status, being a senior was associated
with significantly increased odds of food-
insecurity (Duke, 2023). Another study found
increased odds of food insecurity among third-
year students, alluding that upperclassmen are
more likely to experience food insecurity
(Martinez, 2018). A possible explanation for
this is that more college upperclassmen live off-
campus, which is associated with increased odds
of food insecurity. This is due to being away
from on-campus food, and higher housing costs
resulting in competition with food costs
(Halfacare, 2021). Other explanations could
include higher amounts of meals eaten off
campus, travel costs, and more likely to be in
unpaid internships (Duke, 2021).
Several demographic qualities such as
race, gender, sexuality, their families' prior
social status, and student status can all hinder
the ability of college students to obtain proper
food security. But this raises a bigger question
of is this really the case for all students in this
situation?
5. College helping students escape food
insecurity
Cost, accessibility, and certain
demographic characteristics can all create
higher rates of food insecurity among
undergraduate college students in the United
States. Although for some students, college is
the first time in their lives they don’t suffer from
food insecurity; it actually helps their ability to
get food.
In 2013, college students enrolled in a
meal plan were asked to participate in a survey
about their fast food consumption. This survey
concluded that a person who purchased a high
flex dollar allowance had LESS prior financial
access than someone who purchased a low flex
dollar allowance. This showed that college meal
plans give students more opportunities to obtain
food than before (Dingman, 2014). Part of the
reason for this is meal plans – like tuition and
housing – are part of the total cost of attendance
at a college. This means that their meal plan
prices can be significantly reduced or covered
under financial aid for those who come from a
poverty and/or food-insecure background
(Wood, 2022). In a survey of undergraduate
students, more often than not, food-insecure
students received financial aid and/or need-
based grants, scholarships, or loans (Martinez,
2018). Since 2010, first-time college students
have been receiving enough of this financial aid
to cover their tuition and fees (College Board,
2022). Many universities including Columbia
also have many assistance programs for low-
income and first-generation students to increase
their ability to get food, tutoring, stipends, and
wardrobe; all which could have been impossible
for them to access before (Kolowich, 2015).
Additionally, since the middle of the twentieth
century, colleges have made significant
improvements for groups that are historically
marginalized or excluded. For example, specific
financial aid programs have helped women,
racial/ethnic minorities, and those with low
incomes enroll in college (Broton, 2022).
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, there are three main
factors causing high-rates of food insecurity in
undergraduate students. The first main factor is
cost which includes the effect of jobs, meal-plan
prices, and other miscellaneous university costs.
The second factor includes accessibility issues
such as inconveniences of dining halls, access to
other on-campus resources, and transportation to
off-campus food places and grocery stores.
Lastly, demographic factors such as minority
status in race, ethnicity, gender, and sexuality;
as well as prior financial status, and student
status. Although, it was found this isn’t the case
for every student – in some cases students
actually escaped food insecurity thanks to
college.
Food insecurity is important to address
on higher education campuses due to its extreme
effects on students. Eating behaviors can
negatively impact physical, mental, and
cognitive/scholastic function (Reuter, 2021). In
the physical sense, food insecurity has been
linked to numerous risk factors including
cardiovascular disease, obesity, and poor sleep
(Mendy, 2018; Weaver, 2022). In the mental
sense, it results in lower self-perception and
more likely to suffer from mental health issues
such as anxiety, depression, and eating disorders
(Clerkin, 2021; Kolowich, 2015; Mendy, 2018;
Weaver, 2022). In the cognitive/scholastic
sense, food-insecurity can play a significant role
in academic progression and performance
causing things like slower degree progression
and lower GPAs (Hale, 2020; Weaver, 2022)
Overall these findings are significant for
higher education officials to address and attempt
to create change on campus. In order to help
students struggling with physical, mental, and
cognitive/scholastic function, food problems
need to be acknowledged and fixed first. The
issues that contribute to food insecurity
addressed in the essay also serve as ideas for
change for higher education officials. For
example: better dining hall and food pantry
access, more food locations, food financial aid,
greater off-campus transportation, equity
practices, etc. Higher education has always been
a strong influencer of social change, and a place
of increased opportunity for students. So, why is
the current conversation on food insecurity
among their undergraduate students different?
6.1. Resources
If you are struggling with food
insecurity, please consider visiting the following
resources:
Food Pantries - Find food pantries nearby:
https://www.foodpantries.org/
Feeding America - Find food banks nearby:
https://www.feedingamerica.org/find-your-
local-foodbank
Why Hunger - Find meals nearby:
https://networks.whyhunger.org/
USDA - Supplementary Nutrition Assistance
Program (SNAP):
https://www.fns.usda.gov/snap/recipient/eligibil
ity
USDA - Food assistance programs by state:
https://www.fns.usda.gov/fns-
contacts?f%5B1%5D=program%3A32
SUNY - NY Campus Food Resources:
https://www.suny.edu/foodinsecurity/campus-
resources/
Meals on Wheels America - Find Meals:
https://www.mealsonwheelsamerica.org/find-
meals
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