Issue: 32, 2018 70 Consumer Emotions on Black Friday

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Consumer Emotions on Black Friday: Antecedents and Consequence

AUTHORS:

Sharron J. Lennon,

Indiana University

Minjeong Kim,

Indiana University

119 Kirkwood Hall Indiana University,

Bloomington, IN 47405

[email protected]

812-855-4053

Jaeha Lee,

North Dakota State University

Kim K. P. Johnson,

University of Minnesota

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Consumer Emotions on Black Friday: Antecedents and Consequence

The day after Thanksgiving in the U.S. is called Black Friday (BF) and serves as the

traditional start to the holiday shopping season (Shay, 2015). BF represents a unique

consumption ritual that blends traditional shopping for better deals with holiday rituals for

social relations (Thomas and Peters, 2011). Known for deep discounts (e.g., doorbusters), BF

shopping manifests adventure, competition and urgency around getting great deals. With

doorbuster deals and festive shopping environments on BF, many families in the U.S. have

come to enjoy BF as one of the popular social activities during the Thanksgiving holidays

(Thomas and Peters, 2011). Although online shopping on BF outpaced instore shopping in

2016 (Wahba, 2016), BF is still important (David, 2016) for several reasons: it is one of the

most important shopping days for malls and stores, it is the biggest sales day of the

Thanksgiving weekend, and more people shop on BF than any other day during Thanksgiving

week (Halkias, 2016). Although Cyber Monday is gaining popularity, BF shopping continues

to be popular because of an abundance of doorbuster deals, instant gratification, and the

benefit of social shopping (VerHaar, 2015). Some shoppers are loyal to BF and anticipate

having fun shopping on BF while getting doorbuster deals (Sander, 2013).

The popularity of BF is not limited to the U.S. Several countries have adopted BF

(e.g., U.K., Canada, South Africa, and South Korea) or created another big shopping day

inspired by BF (e.g., China and Mexico). The U.K. adopted BF in 2011 (Silverman and

Sawer, 2014). Following U.S. BF retail business models, both Sainsbury’s and Tesco

embraced not only deep discounts, but also early openings on BF (Munbodh, 2015).

Canadian retailers began to offer BF sales to stem the tide of Canadians shopping U.S. stores

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on BF (Harris, 2016). South Africa introduced Black Friday in 2014 with staggering

discounts and consumer frenzy (Chutel and Kazeem, 2016). In South Korea, retail businesses

embraced U.S.-inspired BF in order to boost consumer markets (Park, 2014). Thus, the

popularity of BF shopping has had a profound impact on the global consumer culture.

Despite its considerable impact on the global consumer culture, BF shopping has

received somewhat limited scholarly attention (Lennon et al., 2011; Lennon et al., 2014;

Swilley and Goldsmith, 2013; Thomas and Peters, 2011). Thomas and Peters found that BF

shopping was a new consumption ritual for generations of (mostly female) family members

and close friends. Some BF shoppers reported the competitive shopping environment on BF

was fun and exciting, similar to a game show or a great race. In their research on BF

shopping and Cyber Monday shopping, Swilley and Goldsmith found that consumers enjoyed

socializing with others when shopping on BF and also enjoyed the inviting atmospherics (i.e.,

holiday decorations). Motivated by media headlines about casualties on BF and growing

public concerns about safety, some researchers investigated factors leading to consumer

misbehavior on BF; they found that BF shoppers’ effort involved in BF planning and

perceptions of inequity resulting from unpleasant fellow shoppers led to BF consumer

misbehavior (Lennon et al., 2011; Lennon et al., 2014).

Building onto extant research in the context of BF, this study aims to determine

antecedents and consequences of consumer emotion experienced on BF. Popular press

accounts of BF shopping often reference emotion in the context of BF shopping. For

example, the NY Times reported consumers’ frustration and anger at merchants who

advertise doorbusters, but stock few advertised items (Barbaro, 2006). Other popular press

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accounts also highlight emotional shoppers, calling BF shoppers frantic, frenzied, upset,

frustrated, angry, and crazy (Carr, 2008; Chutel and Kazeem, 2016; Dahlgren, 2011). U.K.

shoppers have also been termed excited and angry on BF (Glanfield et al., 2014). BF

shoppers are also described as thrilled and festive. Some BF shoppers were found to enjoy

arousal as a result of the intense competition and the thrill of the hunt for great deals (Thomas

and Peters, 2011).

Despite frequent association with both negative and positive emotion in the context of

BF, empirical research is lacking to fully understand consumer emotions on BF; about what

triggers various emotions (antecedents) and what role emotions evoked during BF shopping

play in consumer evaluation of their shopping experience on BF (consequence). Evaluation

of the BF shopping experience is important due to its likely impact on consumer decision-

making. Consumer evaluation reflects a personal assessment of the value consumers perceive

from shopping on BF (Knutson et al., 2006). Prior research has supported the significant role

of emotion on evaluations of store image and decision satisfaction in a retail context (Kim

and Lennon, 2011).

Addressing existing gaps in literature, both the antecedents and consequence of

consumer emotions on BF are investigated. Drawing on psychological theories (General

Aggression Model, Schema theory and Discrepancy-evaluation theory of emotion), both

situational (e.g., goal blockage/attainment) and personal (e.g., prior BF experience and

expectations about BF) factors as antecedents to emotions experienced on BF were tested.

Consumer evaluation of BF as a consequence of consumer emotion experienced on BF was

further examined. The findings offer practical implications for retailers, suggesting

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management strategies to evoke emotions that would positively impact consumers’

evaluation of their BF shopping experience. Additionally, the findings further offer

implications for consumers about how to manage BF shopping for consumer well-being.

Literature Review

Antecedents to Emotion

Simpson et al. (2011) reported that shoppers displayed both positive and negative emotions

on BF but did not identify specific factors evoking those emotions. Anderson and Bushman

(2002) suggested that behavioral responses are influenced by both situational (context) and

personal variables, and the influence is mediated in part by affective variables. It was

postulated that both a situational variable (goal blockage/attainment) and personal factors

(prior BF experience and expectations about BF) are antecedents to emotions experienced on

BF.

Situational factors

Drawing on the General Aggression Model or GAM (Anderson and Bushman, 2002),

whether or not goals are blocked/attained is a situational factor that gives rise to consumer

emotions on BF. According to the GAM, knowledge structures or schema are developed

through experience, are linked to emotion, and guide behavioral responses. Goal blockage is

common on BF (Barbaro, 2006) either from stockouts or from promotional restrictions (e.g.,

barring consumers from receiving a discount if they have not made their purchase by the

deadline). Goals are also blocked in other ways on BF. Consumers in a rush to get to another

store are often forced to wait in long lines to get into the stores and again to make a purchase;

their goals are blocked when other shoppers cut ahead of them in line. When goals are

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blocked, shoppers are likely to experience negative emotion. At other times, BF shoppers

experience goal attainment, which may result in positive emotion when they get doorbuster

deals.

Prior research in a retailing context offers empirical evidence that supports a

relationship between goal blockage and negative emotion (Kalamas et al., 2008; Kim and

Lennon, 2011). Kalamas et al. investigated negative affective reactions to a firm’s service

failures. In one manipulation the goal to obtain reimbursement for damaged clothing was

blocked when reimbursement was refused. Exposure to this manipulation evoked more anger

in research participants than exposure to a neutral situation. In Kim and Lennon’s research,

the goal to purchase a garment was blocked via stockouts, which evoked negative emotions.

In addition, participants exposed to two stockouts experienced significantly more negative

emotion as compared to participants exposed to only one stockout. On the flip side, if

shoppers experience goal attainment (e.g., getting reimbursed for damaged goods, getting

doorbuster deals) rather than goal blockage, it is reasonable to expect they will experience

positive emotion. In fact, in two studies Schindler (1998) found that consumers who receive

discounts experience positive emotion as a result. Thus, the following hypothesis was

developed.

H1: BF Goal blockage (attainment) evokes negative (positive) emotions on BF.

Personal factors. Drawing on Schema theory (Wyer, 1980) and the Discrepancy-

evaluation theory of emotion (Mandler, 1984), we anticipate that BF expectations shaped by

prior BF experience set the stage for emotions to occur. Schema theory (Wyer, 1980)

explains what shapes expectations. A schema is an organized mental knowledge structure

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abstracted from experience about people and events. We form expectations based on past

experience and knowledge of a specific type of product, service, or event (Wyer, 1980).

Event schemas describe typical sequences of behaviors in various contexts (Abelson, 1981).

In a shopping context, people develop a shopping schema based on prior experience. Applied

to a BF context, event schemas on BF are likely to include the sequence of events

surrounding doorbuster deals and be formed based on past BF shopping experience and/or

learning via media promotions. BF shoppers who have successfully secured doorbuster deals

in the past are likely to expect to attain doorbuster deals in the future. Since schemas are

formed based on experience and schemas guide expectations, then experience shapes

expectations.

In a general retail context, Hou, Wu, and Hu (2013) found that experience with a

retailer was positively related to patronage intent. This finding may imply that a positive

(negative) experience with a retailer shaped an expectation for future positive (negative)

experiences with that retailer. These ideas are consistent with Wood and Moreau’s research

(2006) in which product experience shaped expectations. Thus, it is reasonable to expect a

positive relationship between BF experience and expectations for BF shopping. Therefore,

the following hypothesis was developed.

H2: Consumers’ prior BF shopping experience is positively related to their

expectations about BF.

Expectations are associated with emotion (Dizén and Berenbaum, 2008; Mandler,

1984). Mandler, in his Discrepancy-evaluation theory of emotion, explained that

discrepancies between what consumers expect and what they experience evoke emotions.

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According to consumer satisfaction theories (Oliver, 1993), discrepancies between

consumers’ expectations for a product, service, or event and their evaluations of the product,

service, or event determine consumer satisfaction or dissatisfaction. In turn, the subsequent

satisfaction or dissatisfaction can lead to positive or negative emotions. In support of these

relationships, Wood and Moreau (2006) found that disconfirmation of expectations evoked

both positive and negative emotions.

In the context of BF, consumers may have different levels of expectations about BF

based on their prior experience, and their expectations about BF are likely to determine their

emotional reaction to BF goal blockage or attainment. When expectations are not met,

consumers are likely to experience negative emotion. The intensity of negative emotion is

likely to be highly influenced by expectations. With high expectations for getting doorbuster

deals, a consumer may experience intense negative emotion such as anger, whereas someone

with low expectations may experience milder negative emotion such as disappointment.

Similarly, emotion evoked when getting doorbuster deals is also influenced by the

consumers’ BF expectations. Based on this rationale and previous research findings, the

following hypothesis was developed.

H3: Expectations about BF are positively related to emotional reactions to BF goal

blockage/attainment.

Consumer Emotion and BF Evaluation

Various emotions such as frustration, anger, upset, thrill, motivation, and excitement that

consumers experience on BF have been reported in popular press articles (Barbaro, 2006;

Carr, 2008; Dahlgren, 2011; Glanfield et al., 2014; Pekala, 2012). In addition, researchers

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have observed shoppers displaying both positive and negative emotions on BF (Simpson et

al., 2011). Positive emotions observed were excitement and happiness, whereas observed

negative emotions included anger, anxiety, belligerence, disgust, distress, irritability, sadness,

and tension.

Positive emotion has a significant positive effect on behavioral intent in both online

(Lee and Thorson, 2009) and offline retail environments (Donovan and Rossiter, 1982).

Wood and Moreau (2006) found that both positive and negative emotion affect evaluation in

the context of innovative products. Focusing only on the effect of negative emotion on

evaluations, Kalamas et al. (2008) found that anger evoked when reimbursement for damaged

clothing was denied was significantly related to evaluations of the service experience

resulting in dissatisfaction and perceived unfairness. In Kim and Lennon’s (2011) research

the negative emotion evoked by stockouts negatively influenced evaluations of store image

and decision satisfaction. Based on this rationale, the following hypothesis was developed.

H4: Consumers’ emotions on BF are positively related to their evaluation of BF

shopping experience.

Method

BF Shopping Scenario Stimuli

Three BF shopping scenario manipulations reflecting common goal blockage/attainment

situations on BF were adopted from previous research (Lennon, Kim, Lee, & Johnson, 2017).

Originally developed from popular press reports (Barbaro, 2006) and class discussions,

scenarios included two types of goal blockage often experienced during BF shopping and a

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typical BF doorbuster deal (goal attainment) (See Table 1 for all scenarios). In two conditions

the BF shopper was unable to purchase advertised items either due to a stockout (Stockout) or

to a promotional restriction (Wait in Line). In the third condition the shopper was able to

purchase advertised items at promotional prices (Doorbuster). A manipulation check of the

three shopping scenarios was successful (see Lennon et al., 2017).

Table 1. Experimental Manipulations

Text common to

all three scenarios

On Black Friday you leave the house at around 3 a.m. to get in line at one

of your favorite retailers. You read in the Thanksgiving Day

advertisements that this retailer is offering 50% off their apparel. You are

interested in getting cashmere sweaters for several of your family

members. For their door buster special, you get an additional 20% off if

you purchase before 7 a.m. This means you can afford to get everyone that

you want a very nice gift this holiday season. You arrive at the mall at 4

a.m. and begin standing in line. At the time the doors open at 5 a.m., you

estimate that there are probably at least 250 people standing in line waiting

to get in. The doors open. . .

Wait in Line

You find the merchandise you want to purchase and begin waiting in a

very long line. The line moves very slowly. You are getting tired holding

your merchandise and standing in line. The retailer has only six checkouts

and some people are bringing armfuls of merchandise to the service area.

By 7:05 am, you still have not reached the cashier. You are told

that you will not receive the door buster special discount on your

merchandise because it is now after 7.

Stockout

You move as quickly as possible to the area of the store where the sweaters

are located. You see others already in line with cashmere sweaters.

However, when you reach the sweater area, you find the tables empty.

At 5:10 a.m. after waiting in line for an hour to get into the store,

you find an associate who tells you that the cashmere sweaters are all sold

out and no rain checks will be issued.

Doorbuster

You find the merchandise you want to purchase and begin waiting in a

very long line. The line moves very slowly. You are getting tired holding

your merchandise and standing in line. The retailer has only six checkouts

and some people are bringing armfuls of merchandise to the service area.

By 6:55 a.m., you make it to the cashier. You receive the door

buster special discount and are able to get everything you wanted at 70%

off of the regular retail price

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Pretest

A pretest was conducted to establish content validity of emotion items selected for the study

and test the relationship between the three scenarios and emotional responses. Student

volunteers (n = 99) were solicited from classes and were from the same general pool as those

in the main study. After reading one of the three BF shopping scenarios, respondents

completed a series of Likert items. Emotion was measured with 87 seven-point items from

the research literature that were applicable to a BF shopping context (Burns and Neisner,

2006; Dizén and Berenbaum, 2008; Kim and Lennon, 2011; Richins, 1997; Schimmack and

Diener, 1997; Shaver et al., 1987). Participants were instructed to rate the extent to which

they experienced each emotion after reading their assigned BF scenario using 7-point scales

(extremely strongly/not at all). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) yielded two emotion factors

(positive, negative); α = .83 and .94 respectively.

MANOVA revealed significant differences due to BF shopping scenarios on positive

and negative emotions, F

4, 190

= 27.37, p < .0001. Follow-up ANOVAs revealed significant

effects for scenarios on both positive (F

2, 96

= 30.53, p < .0001) and negative emotion (F

2, 96

39.83, p < .0001). Tukey’s post hoc comparisons found that people in the Doorbuster

condition experienced significantly stronger positive emotion (M = 2.73, SD = 1.32) than

people in the Wait in Line condition (M = 1.26, SD = 1.13) or the Stockout condition (M =

.72, SD = .62), both ps < .05. Tukey’s post hoc comparisons also found that people in the

Wait in Line condition experienced stronger negative emotion (M = 4.38, SD = 1.07) than

people in the Stockout condition (M = 3.59, SD = 1.32) or in the Doorbuster condition (M =

1.90, SD = 1.24), both ps < .05. These results demonstrate empirical support for the effect of

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goal blockage (attainment) on emotion evoked on BF, consistent with predictions. Thus, the

manipulations were deemed successful.

Instrument Development

All measures, with one exception, were adopted from prior literature and had established

acceptable reliability and validity. Minor revisions on wording were made to reflect a BF

shopping context. Prior BF experience was measured with six 5-point scale items with

bipolar endpoints adapted to address BF shopping experiences (Kim & Lennon, 2011).

Expectations about BF were assessed with two sets of expectation measures to capture both

expectations of BF deals and specific expectations in terms of retailer performance on BF.

Expectations of BF deals were assessed using sixteen 5-point Likert items (Cronbach’s α =

.97) developed by Dizén and Berenbaum (2008) for basic psychological research.

Expectations of retailer performance on BF were assessed with nineteen 7-point Likert items

adapted from Parasuraman et al. (1988); Cronbach’s αs ranged from .87 to .90. Three

additional items of BF expectations were developed by the researchers to complement

existing expectation scales to fully capture consumer expectations about BF. These items

used the same 7-point Likert format. To measure emotion, the same 87 emotion items as in

the pretest were used. Evaluation of BF shopping was assessed using five 5-point Likert

items from Knutson et al. (2006). Demographic information was also gathered. All items

from multi-item scales are included in Table 2.

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Figure 1. Conceptual Model

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Table 2. Exploratory Factor Analyses

Measures

Items (factor loadings)

Prior BF

Experience

Prior BF Experience (Eigenvalue = 4.78, Variance Accounted for = 79.73%,

Cronbach’s α = .95)

How often have you shopped on Black Friday? (.90)

How often have you purchased on Black Friday? (.92)

How often have you shopped for apparel or accessories on Black Friday? (.96)

How often have you purchased apparel or accessories on Black Friday? (.98)

How many apparel items did you buy when you last shopped on Black Friday?

(.72)

How much do you normally spend when you buy apparel on Black Friday? (.69)

Expectations

of BF Deals

Positive expectations of BF deals (Eigenvalue = 7.28, Variance Accounted for =

42.53%, Cronbach’s α = .91)

If I am able to purchase the items I am looking for on Black Friday at the

advertised discount, my life will be perfect (.79)

…my life will be problem-free (.70)

…my life will be complete (.82)

…my life will be great (.63)

If I am able to purchase the items I am looking for on Black Friday at the

advertised discount, I would think I am perfect (.77)

…I would think I am impressive (.65)

…I would think I am worthwhile (.75)

…I would think I am great (.69)

Negative expectations of BF deals (Eigenvalue = 3.59, Variance Accounted for =

22.43%, Cronbach’s α = .95)

If I am NOT able to purchase the items I am looking for on Black Friday at the

advertised discount, my life will be meaningless (.84)

…my life will be a mess (.76)

…my life will be a disaster (.78)

…my life will be empty (.79)

If I am NOT able to purchase the items I am looking for on Black Friday at the

advertised discount, I would think I am worthless (.90)

…I would think I am a failure (.81)

…I would think I am no good (.87)

…I would think I am inadequate (.88)

Retailer

Performance

Expectations

Expectations of retailer capability (Eigenvalue = 6.04, Variance Accounted for =

31.78%, Cronbach’s α = .89)

When the store promises to do something by a certain time on Black Friday, it

should do so. (.63)

Stores should be physically appealing on Black Friday. (.64)

Employees should be well dressed and neat on Black Friday. (.62)

The employees should be willing to help customers on Black Friday. (.67)

The store should be dependable on Black Friday. (.69)

Employees should be polite on Black Friday. (.63)

Customers should be able to trust employees on Black Friday. (.59)

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Stores should have enough inventory to meet customer demand on Black Friday.

(.56)

Stores should make items easy to find on Black Friday. (.64)

When customers have problems on Black Friday, retailers should be sympathetic.

(.56)

Retailers should be dependable on Black Friday. (.71)

Stores should have up-to-date equipment on Black Friday. (.68)

Expectations of lack of customer service (Eigenvalue = 2.12, Variance Accounted

for = 11.16%, Cronbach’s α = .65)

It is okay if employees are too busy to help customers on Black Friday. (.50)

Employees should not be expected to give customers individual attention on Black

Friday. (.72)

It is unrealistic to expect employees to have their customer's best interest at heart

on Black Friday. (.60)

Evaluation of

the BF

Experience

Evaluation (Eigenvalue = 4.01, Variance Accounted for = 80.12%, Cronbach’s α =

.94)

I benefited from Black Friday shopping (.89)

Black Friday shopping added value for me (.89)

Black Friday shopping experience was consistent with what I expected (.76)

Black Friday shopping offered the value I required (.92)

Black Friday shopping offered what it promised (.86)

Emotions

Negative emotion (Eigenvalue = 26.84, Variance Accounted for = 30.85%,

Cronbach’s α = .97)

Cheated (.72)

Displeased (.73)

Humiliated (.65)

Remorseful (.65)

Confused (.62)

Distressed (.65)

Indignant (.60)

Revolted (.72)

Contemptuous

(.64)

Distrustful (.70)

Insignificant (.63)

Sad (.71)

Depressed (.72)

Dominated (.62)

Livid (.75)

Sulky (.64)

Discontented (.71)

Enraged (.84)

Mad (.76)

Unfulfilled (.77)

Discouraged (.71)

Furious (.78)

Miserable (.68)

Upset (.78)

Disgusted (.78)

Helpless (.61)

Outraged (.84)

Dismayed (.77)

Hostile (.72)

Regretful (.68)

Positive emotion (Eigenvalue = 19.49, Variance Accounted for = 22.4%,

Cronbach’s α = .97)

Cheerful (.84)

Excited (.86)

Hopeful (.61)

Thrilled (.83)

Contented (.73)

Exhilarated (.82)

Interested (.73)

Triumphant (.81)

Delighted (.83)

Glad (.90)

Joyful (.91)

Elated (.74)

Good (.89)

Jubilant (.83)

Enthusiastic (.86)

Happy (.91)

Pleased (.88)

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Procedure

Students were recruited with in-class announcements at four U.S. universities to participate in

an online experiment. Students participated as part of an optional course activity. A URL was

provided that linked participants to a letter explaining the nature of the research. If students

agreed to participate they were randomly assigned to one of the three conditions (e.g.,

Doorbuster, Stockouts, or Wait in Line) and responded to the research questionnaire.

Results

Sample Characteristics

A total of 339 people with prior BF experience participated in the research. Participants were

predominantly women (96.2%) and Caucasian Americans (83.5%). Their average age was

21.0 (SD = 3.6). About 73% of the participants had purchased three or fewer apparel items on

BF and over 45% of the participants spent between $25 and $100 for apparel purchases on

BF.

Preliminary Analyses

Multi-item measures were subjected to EFA and reliability analyses (Cronbach’s αs = .83 –

.95). See Table 2 for details and statistics related to these analyses. The maximum likelihood

estimation was used to conduct EFA on all multi-item measures to check dimensionality. The

prior BF experience items yielded one factor with six items that accounted for 79.73% of the

variance (Cronbach’s α = .95). EFA on the 16 BF expectation items yielded two correlated

BF expectation factors (r = .32, p < .0001), which were combined in a composite score;

negative BF expectation items were reverse scored and summed with positive BF expectation

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items. The combined factors (positive and negative) accounted for 68% of the variance

(Cronbach’s α = .91 and .95, respectively). The expectation factor was labeled as

‘expectations of BF deals.’ EFA on the 19 retailer performance expectation items yielded two

factors containing 15 items. The two factors together accounted for 43% of the variance. The

first factor containing 12 items was named ‘expectations of retailer capability’ (Cronbach’s α

= .89) and the other factor containing 3 items was named ‘expectations of lack of customer

service’ (Cronbach’s α = .65). Thus, three expectation variables (expectations of BF deals,

expectations of retailer capability, and expectations of lack of customer service) were used

for hypotheses testing.

Consistent with the pretest, EFA on the 87 emotion items yielded two factors

containing 47 items. The two factors together accounted for 53.3% of the variance. The first

factor, negative emotion, included 30 items (Cronbach’s α = .97) and the second factor,

positive emotion, contained 17 items (Cronbach’s α = .97). Both emotion factors included

items reflecting a wide spectrum of emotion in terms of intensity. For example, positive

emotion items ranged from happy and contented to thrilled and triumphant. Negative emotion

items also ranged from sad and discontented to furious and livid. Table 2 lists all emotion

items. EFA on the 5 BF shopping evaluation items yielded one factor accounting for 80.1%

of the variance (Cronbach’s α = .94). For all multi-item measures, composite scores were

used for hypotheses testing.

Hypothesis Testing

MANOVA was used to test H1 about goal blockage (attainment) as a situational antecedent

to consumer emotions on BF. The overall multivariate test showed that goal blockage

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(attainment) affected emotions, F

2, 672

= 53.71, p < .0001, supporting H1. Follow-up

ANOVAs showed that goal blockage affected negative emotion, F

2, 336

= 46.20, p < .0001

and goal attainment affected positive emotion, F

2, 336

= 92.03, p < .0001. Tukey cell

comparisons found that negative emotion was significantly different across all three

conditions (ps < .001). Negative emotion was highest in the Wait in Line condition (M =

2.82, SD = 1.45) as compared to the Stockout condition (M = 2.25, SD = 1.43) or the

Doorbuster condition (M = 1.23, SD = 1.18). For positive emotion only two of the cell

comparisons were significantly different (p < .001). Positive emotion was greater in the

Doorbuster condition (M = 2.65, SD = 1.50) than either the Stockout (M = .64, SD = 1.19) or

the Wait in Line condition (M = .76, SD = 1.09).

Path analysis was used to test the other hypotheses in the conceptual model (see

Figure 1). Maximum likelihood estimation indicated an acceptable model fit. The model

yielded a Chi-square value of 19.64 (p < 0.01), a NFI of .95, an IFI of .97, a CFI of .97, and a

RMSEA of 0.07. The results of the path analysis showed that prior experience shopping on

BF was positively related to expectations of BF deals, β = .24, t = 4.50, p < .0001, and to

expectations of retailer capability, β = .19, t = 3.48, p < .001. However prior shopping

experience on BF was not related to expectations of lack of customer service, p = .41. Thus

H2 was partially supported.

For H3 examining the role of consumer expectations of BF as a personal antecedent to

emotions on BF, path analysis showed that expectations of BF deals were positively related

to both negative emotion, β = .27, t = 5.24, p < .0001 and positive emotion, β = .26, t = 5.01,

p < .0001. Expectations of retailer capability were positively related to negative emotion, β =

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.11, t = 2.02, p < .05 but not related to positive emotion, p = .99. Expectations of lack of

customer service were negatively related to positive emotion, β = -.14, t = -2.56, p < .05, but

not related to negative emotion, p = .51. H3 was partially supported.

For H4 examining consumer evaluation of BF shopping as a consequence of

consumer emotions on BF, path analysis further showed that only positive emotion was

positively related to evaluation of BF shopping, β = .14, t = 3.44, p < .0001, whereas negative

emotion was not related to evaluation of BF shopping, p = .41. Thus, H4 was partially

supported.

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Post-hoc Decomposition of Effects

Decomposition of effects was conducted to further examine the underlying process by which

prior BF experience impacted evaluation of BF shopping. As shown in Table 3, prior

experience on BF had significant indirect effects on both negative emotion and positive

emotion via expectations. In particular, prior BF experience impacted negative emotion

through expectations of BF deals and expectations of retailer capability, while it impacted

positive emotion through expectations of BF deals. Prior BF shopping experience had a

strong direct impact on evaluation of BF shopping and expectations of BF deals had a

significant indirect impact on evaluation via positive emotion.

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Table 3. Decomposition of Direct, Indirect, and Total Effects for the Hypothesized Model

Dependent variables

Predictor variables

Total effect

Direct effect

Indirect effect

Expectations of BF deals

Prior BF experience

.24 (4.50)***

Expectations of retailer capability

Prior BF experience

.19 (3.48)***

Expectations of lack of customer service

.05 (.82)

Prior BF experience

Negative emotion

Prior BF experience

.09 (3.48)***

Expectations of BF deals

.27 (5.24)***

Expectations of retailer capability

.11 (1.96)*

Expectations of lack of customer

service

.04

Positive emotion

Prior BF experience

.06 (2.15)*

Expectations of BF deals

.26 (5.01)***

Expectations of retailer capability

-.00

Expectations of lack of customer

service

-.14 (2.56)*

Evaluation of BF Shopping experience

Prior BF experience

.67 (20.39)***

.66 (19.47)***

.01

Expectations of BF deals

.05 (2.12)*

Expectations of retailer capability

.00

Expectations of lack of customer

service

-.02

Negative emotion

.03

Positive emotion

.14 (3.33)*

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Discussion

The research purposes were to determine antecedents to emotions on BF and examine the role

of consumer emotions in the context of BF. Drawing on psychology theories and consumer

literature, two types of antecedents to BF emotions; situational (i.e., goal

blockage/attainment) and personal (i.e., prior BF experience and expectations) were

identified and empirically tested using U.S. college students with prior BF shopping

experience. Using an extensive list of emotions, emotion items relevant to the context of BF

were identified and yielded consistent results in both pretest and the main study. Further

examined was to what extent emotions experienced on BF, as a function of expectations of

BF and goal blockage/attainment, impacted consumer evaluation of their BF shopping

experience.

First, common goal blockage/attainment situations on BF were identified as

situational antecedents to emotions on BF. Three BF shopping scenarios were used to

simulate BF shopping experience and examine the role of goal blockage/attainment in

evoking consumer emotional reactions. Specifically, the Stockout and the Wait in Line

conditions (the goal blockage situations) were associated with increased negative emotion as

compared to the Doorbuster condition (the goal attainment situation). Furthermore, a

significant difference in the intensity of negative emotion was found between the Wait in

Line and the Stockout scenarios; the Wait in Line scenario led to greater negative emotion

than the Stockout scenario. Perceived inequity may explain why the Wait in Line scenario led

to more negative emotion than the Stockout scenario. BF shoppers may perceive injustice

after having waited in line to get the deal. Perhaps stockouts are more common and more

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expected for doorbuster items than unsuccessfully waiting in line to pay for them. In prior BF

research by Lennon et al. (2014), perception of inequity was a major variable driving

consumer misbehavior on BF. Furthermore, in the Wait in Line condition, the specific retailer

was likely to be held accountable and blamed for the policy (Kelley, 1967) because not all

retailers have such a policy on BF whereas most retailers do experience BF stockouts. While

there are no direct connections between goal blockage conditions and specific emotion items,

a wide range of emotional intensity expressed by research participants indicate that

experiencing intense negative emotions are likely when facing goal blockage on BF.

This study identified three dimensions of expectations consumers may have about BF

(i.e., expectations of BF deals, expectations of retailer capability, and expectations of lack of

customer service) reflecting a wide range of expectations BF shoppers have. Consistent with

the expectations literature and Schema theory (Wyer, 1980), prior BF experience was highly

influential in affecting expectations people have developed about BF. The examination of the

relationships between prior BF experience and expectations of BF offer interesting insights

about what BF shoppers expect on BF. First, prior experience shopping on BF was positively

related to expectations of BF deals. This may mean that participants who keep coming back

to shop on BF may do so because they have had obtained numerous BF deals resulting in

their holding inflated expectations for their BF shopping. Further, prior experience shopping

on BF was positively related to expectations of retailer capability, reflecting BF shoppers’

clear expectations for both great deals and a satisfactory shopping experience. However, prior

BF experience was not related to expectations for lack of customer service, a finding that is

consistent with consumer expectation of retailer capability. Contrary to a common belief that

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minimal customer service is expected on BF, participants with prior BF experience did not

expect minimal customer service on BF. This finding may suggest that a shopping schema

developed based on regular shopping experience over time may spill over to consumer

expectations of BF shopping, whereas retailers assume that their customers would be

accepting of a lack of customer service in exchange for the offer of deeply discounted

products. Unlike other shopping contexts (e.g., discount stores) where consumers generally

expect minimal customer service, these consumers appear to expect retailers to uphold their

customer service performance on BF while offering deep BF promotions. In fact, with more

shoppers than usual out hunting for BF deals, there is likely to be an even greater need for

retailers to assist customers with their shopping and checking out.

For the relationships between expectations of BF and emotions experienced on BF,

expectations of BF deals were positively related to both negative emotion and positive

emotion, providing empirical support for the role of expectations in shaping consumer

emotions. As a personal factor, different expectations consumers had about BF deals and

shopping served as a basis for various emotional responses when encountering goal blockage

or attainment. When shoppers had high expectations of BF deals, such high expectations led

to stronger emotional reactions when encountering goal blockage (attainment).

Expectations of retailer capability increased negative emotion. Consistent with

literature on satisfaction (Wyer, 1980) and Mandler’s (1984) Discrepancy-evaluation theory

of emotion, the finding suggests that these BF shoppers expect retailers to perform at their

usual level (i.e., general shopping schema) and this expectation may evoke negative

emotional reactions to BF goal blockage. In contrast to expectations of retailer capability,

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expectations for lack of customer service on BF reduced participants’ positive emotional

reactions. Holding low expectations for (lack of) customer service on BF did not increase

negative emotion, rather it decreased positive emotion. When participants indicated they had

high expectations for BF deals and retailers’ capability on BF, their expectations inflated their

negative emotions. However, when participants had low expectations for customer service,

such expectations deflated positive emotions. Together, these findings indicate the enduring

impact of a general shopping schema. Participants appeared to hold retailers accountable for

serving customers and managing their retail performance on BF. To these participants,

getting BF deals perhaps was not a trade-off for lack of customer service.

Only positive emotion impacted evaluation of BF shopping. This finding is consistent

with research that showed that preconsumption emotion guides customers’ evaluations of an

experience (Mattila and Wirtz, 2000). Despite media reports of angry customers acting out

and resulting casualties during BF shopping, these BF shoppers were fairly positive about

their BF shopping. Their expectations of BF deals led to positive emotion when getting the

deals, which in turn enhanced their evaluation of their BF shopping experience. In a situation

in which their expectations of BF deals were not met, negative emotion was evoked.

However negative emotion as a response to goal blockage did not influence participants’

evaluation of their BF shopping experience.

Another noteworthy finding is the adverse relationship between consumer

expectations for lack of customer service and positive emotion. This finding may support the

notion that BF shopping is about more than simply getting doorbuster deals. As reported by

Thomas and Peters (2011), BF shopping has become a consumption ritual for many

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consumers. Some people may enjoy BF shopping due to time spent with their close family

members and friends as well as the thrill of bargain hunting. This view helps explain why

expectations of retailer capability increased negative emotion and expectations of lack of

customer service reduced positive emotion. As compared to receiving adequate customer

service, BF shopping as a social activity with families and friends will be less enjoyable with

inadequate customer service. These findings call for immediate attention among retailers. It is

critical not only to offer deep discounts, but also to provide BF shoppers with an enjoyable

shopping experience with adequate customer service. The goals of retailers need to go

beyond minimizing negative emotions BF shoppers experience, to capitalizing on positive

emotions BF shoppers experience from quality customer service and enjoyable shopping

experiences. It would also be important for retailers to manage shoppers’ expectations in a

way that expectations for lack of customer service can turn into customer delight by

providing good service leading to positive emotion and thus positive evaluation. Taken

together, the results from expectations of retailer capability and expectations of lack of

customer service suggest that participants’ BF shopping schemas do not deviate much from

their general shopping schema about being able to depend on retailers to meet their needs.

Additionally, the demographic characteristics of these research participants (i.e.,

predominantly women) further offer additional insights into the findings. Prior researchers

have reported that women value the social aspects of BF shopping (Thomas and Peters, 2011)

and tend to be loyal BF shoppers (Sander, 2013). Thomas and Peters also reported having

participants who had shopped on BF for an average of 12.1 years. Despite negative emotion

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experienced as a result of goal blockage, the process of the hunt and the fun enjoyed during

BF shopping perhaps mitigated the impact of negative emotion on evaluation.

Finally, the post-hoc decomposition of effects showed a strong positive effect for

prior BF experience on evaluation of BF shopping. This result in combination with the others

suggests that those with ample prior BF experience continue to shop on BF presumably

because they have been successful and, hence, evaluate their BF shopping positively.

Implications

The empirical findings offer both theoretical implications for the field of consumer research

and practical implications for retailers and consumers. One key theoretical contribution is the

conceptual and empirical identification of emotion items relevant to BF. Thirty negative and

seventeen positive emotion items were found relevant to BF shopping contexts. Emotion

items varied to a great extent in terms of their emotional intensity. These emotion items are

expected to provide useful tools for future researchers who examine consumers in the context

of BF or other heavily promoted retail events. Considering that BF has been adopted by other

countries (i.e., Chutel and Kazeem, 2016; Park, 2014; Silverman and Sawer, 2014) and retail

price competition has continued to increase, the emotion items identified will be useful for

other researchers. Findings also provide empirical support for psychological theories such as

General Aggression Model, Schema theory and Discrepancy-evaluation theory of emotion in

the context of BF shopping and add new insights into consumer emotions. In the following

section, implications for retailers and consumers are discussed respectively.

Implications for Retailers

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Both situational (goal blockage/attainment) and personal (prior BF experience and BF

expectations) factors were identified as antecedents to consumer emotion. This study offers

empirical evidence of how such antecedents impact consumer behavior on BF. Although not

all antecedents to consumer emotions on BF are under retailers’ immediate control (e.g., prior

BF experience, stockouts), the results suggest that retailers may wish to take steps to

purposely manage customer expectations and ultimately future BF shopping experiences,

which become prior experience for the near future.

Consumer expectations of BF go beyond getting BF deals and include expecting the

same enjoyable shopping experience usually associated with shopping, as well as quality

customer service. This finding suggests that retailers need to keep in mind that excitement

and anticipation evoked by media hype can result in adverse outcomes when managed poorly

(e.g., stockouts, wait in line). For expectations for BF deals, consumer expectations often get

inflated due to heavy promotions of BF deals. Promotion of BF deals need to provide

prospective BF shoppers with accurate and clear information about restrictions. For example,

large font size can be used to communicate limited amounts of merchandise and promotional

conditions in all forms of BF advertising. Also since warning consumers of stockouts before

shopping reduces negative emotion (Kim and Lennon, 2011), in-store signs can be used and

updated to inform shoppers of the availability of doorbuster items.

Another strategy is to use social media or store mobile apps to provide real-time

inventory information on promotional items. Using mobile phones, shoppers can check

product availability and thus can manage their shopping effectively. While many retailers

may worry that such information could take excitement away, if managed well, mobile apps

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or social media can create engaging in-store experiences like Pokémon GO that would satisfy

BF shoppers who enjoy the competitive shopping environment on BF (Sander, 2013; Thomas

and Peters, 2011). Taking these steps can contribute to developing realistic expectations,

while making BF shopping fun and engaging, evoking positive emotion during BF shopping.

Furthermore, shifting the emphasis of BF shopping from focusing solely on doorbuster deals

to a focus on BF festivity as a holiday tradition could benefit retailers in the long run

especially in the time of rising Cyber Monday popularity and e-commerce in general.

A general shopping schema appears to apply to BF. Participants did not expect

minimal customer service on BF as a trade-off for doorbuster deals. Retailers need to explore

ways to offer pleasant shopping experiences with adequate customer service without

incurring excessive long-term costs. One way to achieve this may involve the integration of

self-service technology (e.g., kiosks or mobile devices) in stores. For example, often on BF,

checkout lines are excessively long, making BF shopping unpleasant. Mobile devices can

alleviate a long queue by having employees use mobile devices to check out customers or by

enabling customers to checkout using their own mobile phones. Given that the Wait in Line

condition evoked the highest negative emotion, retailers who want to have time limits on

their promotions are recommended to implement strategies to better manage customer

expectations regarding termination of promotions. The worst case for a shopper is to wait in

line to get the doorbuster, reach the cashier to pay, and learn that she/he will not get the deal.

Thus, it is critical to clearly inform shoppers about what is expected (i.e., getting in line by a

specific time or paying by a specific time) in ads and store signage when offering time-

limited doorbusters. Another strategy is for a line monitor to stamp the hands of people

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waiting to checkout by the deadline; that way the cashier would know when to discontinue

the doorbuster price.

Another way to improve customer service is via staffing. Adding frontline salespeople

on the floor could offer customers help and keep stores organized; opening cashier lines

could make checkout traffic move quickly. Expectations for a lack of customer service

lowered positive emotions. Retailers may want to review their past BF performance by

analyzing customer traffic, stock levels, checkout lines, store environment, and in-store

videos and develop strategic plans to provide an adequate level of service. If retailers cannot

offer an adequate level of service, managing expectations may become meaningless. As

aforementioned, the integration of in-store technologies such as in-store kiosks and mobile

apps can provide assistance for BF shoppers. For example, Walmart has provided shoppers

with store maps that highlight the locations of popular products and larger gifts (“Walmart’s

Black Friday,” 2015).

The positive emotions that shoppers experience when they purchase some of their

desired items could outweigh the negative emotions such as disappointment. Thus, retailers

want to make sure that shoppers obtain at least “some” of their desired items. For example,

Walmart offered a “1-Hour Guarantee” that customers in designated areas of the store could

purchase selected items at the guaranteed price for one hour after the event start time

(Walmart’s Black Friday, 2015). For stockouts, customers can get items at the discounted

price before Christmas.

Implications for consumers

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Consumers shop on BF for the deals and to enjoy time with friends and families.

Furthermore, all consumers bring different experiences to the BF retail context, all of which

influence their expectations. For shoppers to evaluate their BF experience in a positive way,

they need to manage their expectations such that positive emotion is increased and negative

emotion decreased or unaffected. Although negative emotion was not related to BF

evaluation, it may be related to stress or confrontations with salespeople or other shoppers.

Based on the results, the following are suggestions to facilitate a positive evaluation.

Expectations of retailer deals led to increases in both positive and negative emotion.

Consumers are advised to temper their expectations of deals with realism. For example,

consumers should read the promotional material carefully and note any special conditions or

restrictions attached to it. Most retailers do not have an unlimited supply of advertised

merchandise, so that should not be expected. Since the greatest level of negative emotion was

evoked with the Wait in Line scenario, shoppers may wish to avoid attempting to capitalize

on the time-limited promotions or find out how retailers manage their time-limited

promotions before waiting in the line to check out. In reality, the expectation that one will be

successful at getting every deal on the shopping list is unrealistic, will not serve shoppers

well, and may lead to stress and irritation. Thus managing moderate expectations of BF

shopping as informed BF shoppers can help them have a positive shopping experience.

With current technological advances, BF shoppers are empowered to strategically

meet their BF shopping goals. If getting good BF deals is a priority, BF shoppers are

encouraged to determine whether or not the promotion is available online prior to BF. Also

consumers can easily conduct comparison shopping online to find best deals prior to BF.

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While it is still possible that the merchandise might be out of stock online, there would be no

waiting in line. Furthermore, BF shoppers could also leverage their mobile technology while

shopping in-store to get available best deals.

Expectations of retailer capability were positively related to negative emotion, while

expectations for a lack of customer service were negatively related to positive emotion. BF

consumers are advised to moderate their expectations for both types of retail service. While it

is human nature to want and expect the same level of service on BF as on ordinary shopping

days, it perhaps is not reasonable to expect it given the stress on the salespeople in terms of

increased customer traffic, disarray in stores, and rushed and cranky shoppers.

Perhaps getting both BF deals and quality shopping experience are competing goals to

accomplish at the same time. In fact, the shopping environment is likely to be highly hectic

and unpleasant as shoppers seek doorbuster deals. BF shoppers could strategize their

shopping trip to choose a few specific stores for BF deals and choose other stores or social

activities (e.g., restaurant) for the time with family and friends.

Lastly, consumers may manage their emotions better when they know what they are

(Markman, 2015). The findings offer insights regarding various emotional responses that

consumer experience during BF shopping. An understanding of emotions they experience and

possible causes (antecedents) will help BF shoppers manage their emotion effectively.

Future Research

Antecedents and consequences of consumer emotions on BF were investigated. To follow

through on this topic, researchers could investigate the entire process of consumer behavior

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on BF beyond evaluation of the BF experience and further examine how consumer emotions

and evaluation of BF impact other aspects of consumer behavior including actual purchases,

misbehavior, and patronage intentions. Furthermore, although students do shop on BF, non-

student adults should also be investigated for generalizability. In particular, studying men in

the context of BF can bring useful insights given likely sex differences. BF shopping is now a

global phenomenon. Future research should explore how culture plays a role in what evokes

consumer emotions on BF and how consumer emotions influence BF shopping experiences.

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