Ticket Operations History and Background

Ticket Operations

History and Background

James T. Reese, Jr. and Derek Thomas

learning obJecTives

Upon completion of this chapter, students will understand the

discipline of ticket operations, how the need for ticket opera-

tions developed, and how the discipline satisﬁes the needs of

spectators in sports and entertainment.

hisTorical background

History credits a variety of cultures with originating sport, including the Chinese,

Egyptians, Babylonians, and the Greeks (College Sports Scholarships, 2001; Graham,

Goldblatt & Delpy, 1995; Mint Museum of Art, 2001). Examples include horse rac-

ing, traced to central Asia as early as 4500 B.C.; bowling, identiﬁed in Egyptian tombs

as early as 3200 B.C.; and wrestling, documented in China as early as 2697 B.C.

(Shuai jiao, 2008), and around 2600 B.C. in Khajaﬁ, Iraq, near Baghdad. A Meso-

american sport/religious ritual called the Ballgame is promoted as the ﬁrst team sport

in history (“Mint Museum,” 2001), with origins as early as 3500 B.C.

No one knows for sure when the ﬁrst ticket in history was issued. It is logical to

assume that ticketing was introduced as a result of the effects of supply and demand.

When the demand for attending a religious event, theatrical production, or sporting

event exceeded the supply of seating, the need to create a system for limiting atten-

dance was likely born. However, the implementation of ticketing may be more cyni-

cal. Assigning exclusivity to different socio-economic classes of people is documented

throughout history (Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2009; Pearson, 1973). It is possible

that ticketing originated as a way to separate the wealthy or important from the com-

mon or less fortunate within the population.

KEY TERMS

amphitheater, Colosseum,

customers, Olympic Games,

ticket history, ticket markets,

ticket operations

Chapter One

The oldest known sports arena is the site of the ancient Olympic Games in Olym-

pia, Greece. However, research differs as to when the ancient Olympic stadium was

actually constructed. It is possible that some sort of primitive ticketing system was

in use during the ancient Olympic Games. At the opening of the Ancient Olympic

Games in 776 B.C., no seating was available for fans. Other than judges, those watch-

ing the games stood in the sun all day, without shelter, if they wanted to take in the

action (Ryan, 1996; Swaddling, 1999). The date of the ancient Olympic stadium’s

construction is estimated at 350 B.C. (Swaddling). Seating capacity for the ancient

stadium is estimated at 45,000-50,000 (Kieran & Daley, 1973). However, there is no

archeological evidence to indicate that any sort of primitive ticketing system was used.

Seating in the stadium may have been open to everyone without the use of assigned

seat locations.

Some historians suggest that ticketing and assigned seats were invented in Rome

(Ryan, 1996). Archeological evidence suggests that the earliest use of a ticket to gain

entrance to a facility was documented in Rome in the ﬁrst century (Tessera, 2008). In

addition, most archaeologists agree that the ﬁrst amphitheater, likely made of wood,

was built in Rome (Pearson, 1973). Other ticketing language, such as sight lines, de-

ﬁned as the quality of a spectator’s view at an event, was ﬁrst used in early Roman

amphitheaters (Pearson, 1973). Therefore, signiﬁcant scientiﬁc and historical evidence

exists to support the link between Roman innovation and the establishment of the

ﬁeld of ticket operations. As the number of spectators increased from hundreds in am-

phitheaters to thousands in the Roman Colosseum in approximately 80 A.D., it is logi-

cal to assume that functional ticketing practices were necessary in order to provide for

efﬁcient trafﬁc ﬂow and to successfully manage large crowds.

From a practical perspective, anything can be used as a ticket as long as the avail-

ability of the item can be controlled and not easily reproduced. For example, in ancient

Rome, tessera were used to gain access to events at amphitheaters and arenas including

the Colosseum (Tessera, 2008). The word tessera is a broadly deﬁned term as applied

to ancient Rome. Tessera included many different items, including pottery shards, col-

ored stones, glass, ceramic, and mosaic tiles, as well as pieces of marble and limestone

cut into small cubes (Futrell, 2006; Tessera, 2008). As applied to use as a ticket to

gain entrance to amphitheaters and arenas, the word tessera likely refers to either small

ceramic tiles or pottery shards.

At the Colosseum, arguably one of the best-designed facilities in history, 80 arches

and staircases called vomitoria were used to efﬁciently allow trafﬁc ﬂow in and out of

the building (Oxford Dictionaries, 2011; Pearson, 1973). At least 66 of these arches

were numbered. Arches, landings, and staircases in the Colosseum were all identi-

ﬁed with Roman numerals (Pearson, 1973; Quennell, 1971; Ryan, 1996). Tickets

were labeled with the arch number and staircase (vomitoria) closest to the seat loca-

tion, as well as the section (maenianum), subsection (cunens), row number (ordo),

and seat number (locus). This allowed spectators to enter and depart the facility at

the ideal arch and locate their seat in a timely and efﬁcient manner (Futrell, 2006;

Tessera, 2008). Experts estimate the seating capacity of the Colosseum at anywhere

Ticket Operations History and Background

from 45,000 to 87,000 (Futrell, 2006; Kohne, Ewigleben, & Jackson, 2000; Pepe,

2008; Quennell, 1971). Reports also indicate that the Colosseum could be ﬁlled or

emptied of full capacity quickly, perhaps in as little as 3-15 minutes (Pearson, 1973;

Pepe, 2008; Ryan, 1996). If true, this statement is a testament to the brilliant planning

and design of the ancient facility. Evidence may also indicate the concept of Will Call,

a location where tickets may be picked up in advance of an event, was in place at the

Colosseum (Ryan, 1996).

The Colosseum was also years ahead of its time in regard to safety. A safe environ-

ment for fans is a basic requirement for successful ticket sales. The Colosseum used

archers on catwalks and nets above certain sections of the facility to protect dignitaries

and spectators from animals. These safeguards were in addition to the 10-foot wall

with railings around the perimeter of the arena ﬂoor (Pearson, 1973). Another inter-

esting Colosseum fact is that there is no written evidence to suggest any riots ever oc-

curred at the facility. One could argue that such written evidence would make Roman

authorities look weak. That may be the case. Spectators may have behaved well due

to fear of a violent response by Roman soldiers, or perhaps adequate security staff was

provided by the government to portray a strong security presence to deter inappropri-

ate behavior. No ancient written code of contact or policies for fan behavior have ever

been discovered. Regardless, from a crowd control perspective, events at the Colos-

seum appear to have been managed with diligence and efﬁciency.

origins of TickeTing in The uniTed sTaTes

Although speciﬁc references to tickets and ticketing are absent, and some disagree as to

which sport was the professional forerunner in America, it is clear that the ﬁrst sport

for which admission was charged in the United States was horse racing (Adelman,

1986; Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2009). The earliest known racetrack existed in

Long Island, New York, as early as 1665 (Driscoll, 2008).

On May 27, 1823, at the Union Course in Long Island, New York, an estimated

50,000 fans gathered to watch a horse race (Adelman, 1986). Although attendance

ﬁgures during a 50-year period from 1820-1870 were thought to be exaggerated, the

fact that fans were said to have overﬂowed the seating capacity of the facility and were

forced to stand along the track is a sign that it was a well-attended event (Adelman,

1986). Although racetracks in that period were not fully enclosed, premium seating

and bleacher seats were exclusive. Though not ofﬁcially documented, it is logical to

conclude that some sort of admission fee or membership was charged to gain access to

premium seating (Adelman, 1986).

The Union Course was renovated in 1829 and was ﬁnancially ahead of its time by

incorporating a groundbreaking innovation into the upgraded facility. New proprietor

Cadwallader R. Colden decided to fully enclose the entire track and force any spectator

that wanted to attend a race to pay an entrance fee. This was done to generate additional

revenue to offset the facility upgrade, pay off existing debt, and increase purses, or prize

amounts, to attract the ﬁnest horses in the region. Higher-proﬁle horses would result in

more fans interested in coming to the track. Attendance fees ranged from a quarter for

Chapter One

general admission with no assigned seat to $3.00 for a four-horse carriage (Adelman,

1986). Although not speciﬁcally referenced, the separate fee for the four-horse carriage

also may indicate another innovation considered standard today, premium facility park-

ing. Colden’s plan may have been innovative, but fans did not respond well. Since ad-

mission was previously charged only for those fans interested in the best seat locations,

not everyone attending the event, less afﬂuent fans decided to stay home rather than pay

for standing room or less than optimal seating (Adelman, 1986).

By 1845, horseracing was in need of reform. A lack of standardized rules resulted

in favoritism, partisanship, and corruption that affected the perceived character of the

sport. Subsequently, attendance started dwindling and the popularity of horseracing

sharply declined (Adelman, 1986; Driscoll, 2008; Parker, 1996). Harness racing had

long been in the shadow of the thoroughbreds. However, as the popularity of horserac-

ing decreased and the perception of prestige began to wear off, race fans and the media

looked to harness racing as an affordable alternative wherein anyone that owned a

horse could now be a jockey.

NASCAR Hall of Fame legend Richard Petty once said, “There is no doubt about

precisely when folks began racing each other in automobiles. It was the day they built

the second automobile” (Goldberg & Wincer, 2004). Though average middle class

Americans did not have the resources to own thoroughbred racehorses in the mid-

1800s, the preferred method of transportation for the middle class was a horse and

buggy. If we apply Richard Petty’s philosophy to the horse and buggy, harness rac-

ing likely began shortly after the second buggy was constructed. In fact, Masteralexis,

Barr, and Hums (2009) suggest that harness racing was “an early precursor of stock

car racing” (p. 9). Harness racing was the sport of the people because the same horse

that was used for work during the day could be used to race in the evening (Adelman,

1986; Masteralexis, Barr, & Hums, 2009). In fact, harness racing was without doubt

the ﬁrst successfully commercialized sport and by the mid-1850s was the leading spec-

tator sport in America (Adelman, 1986). However, in the period leading up to the

Civil War, a new sport, baseball, was also attracting large numbers of fans and chal-

lenging harness racing in terms of popularity.

Baseball is considered the oldest organized “team” sport in America. The earliest

known reference to baseball in the United States is a 1791 bylaw in Pittsﬁeld, Mas-

sachusetts. Known as the “Broken Window Bylaw,” the document was uncovered in

an 1869 book about the history of Pittsﬁeld by historian John Thorn. The bylaw reads

as follows: “…for the Preservation of the Windows in the New Meeting House …

no Person, an Inhabitant of said Town, shall be permitted to play at any Game called

Wicket, Cricket, Baseball, Batball, Football, Cat, Fives or any other Game or Games

with Balls within the Distance of Eighty Yards from said Meeting House” (“Pitts-

ﬁeld’s,” 2006, para. 3).

Baseball expanded rapidly in the Northeast and Midwest parts of the United States

in the 1800s. “By 1858, trains were being run to the Fashion Race Course on Long

Island to witness games. It was there that 4,000 spectators watched the New York All-

Stars defeat Brooklyn two games out of three. The owner of the ﬁelds charged each

Ticket Operations History and Background

50 cents admission—the ﬁrst time spectators paid to watch the game” (Burns, 1994).

However, since the contest in 1858 was an all-star game, it is possible that the ﬁrst paid

admission to a baseball game actually occurred in 1857 (Light, 1997).

Union Grounds, constructed in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn, New York,

across the East River from Manhattan, is credited as being the ﬁrst fully enclosed base-

ball park in America (A&E, 1996; Lowry, 1992; Ross & Dyte, 2010b). The facility

was built by William Cammeyer and opened on May 15, 1862 (Lowry, 1992). Al-

though it is known that admission was charged to watch baseball games prior to the

opening of Union Grounds, just as at the Union Course horse racing facility before it,

Union Grounds represents the ﬁrst time a baseball park was totally enclosed in order to

ensure that all fans paid an admission price. According to A&E (1996), “That very act

of enclosing the park is really the beginning of pro sports in America.” Such a statement

Original 1791 Bylaws.

Courtesy of the Berkshire Athenaeum.

Chapter One

is debatable since Union Course was said to have accomplished the same feat more than

three decades earlier. However, the opening of the fully enclosed Union Grounds in

1862 was surely the beginning of professional team sports in the United States.

An early ballpark constructed in Brooklyn, New York, to rival Union Grounds

was Capitoline Grounds (Ross & Dyte, 2010a). Capitoline Grounds was on the same

street as Union Grounds, Marcy Avenue, and was in use from 1864 until 1880 (Lowry,

1992). The Atlantic Club, also referred to as the Brooklyn Atlantics and the Atlantic

Base Ball Club, of the National Association of Base Ball Players was the ﬁrst tenant.

The Atlantic Club used the facility from 1864 until 1871 (Lowry, 1992; The Capi-

toline Grounds, n.d.). The ﬁrst baseball game at Capitoline Grounds was played on

May 5, 1864, between the Atlantic Club and a group of nine players from a variety of

Brooklyn baseball clubs. The earliest known ticket to a baseball game is housed at the

National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown, New York. The ticket

is from a July 1, 1869, Cincinnati Red Stockings game played at Union Grounds, also

known as Lincoln Park Grounds, in Cincinnati, Ohio. Admission to the game was

ﬁfty cents.

TickeT operaTions defined

According to Reese (2004), ticket operations is a twofold process of granting access

to events and servicing fans. More speciﬁcally, Johnson and Reese (2011) deﬁne sport

ticketing as “the discipline of granting access and serving those who have purchased a

ticket to a sporting event.” (p. 1,556)

Types of MarkeTs: priMary and secondary

The primary ticket market continues to be the main focus for NFL teams (i.e., season

ticketing, advance and onsite single game sales, and group ticketing), but the growing

need for secondary markets is undeniable. One important function a secondary mar-

ket partner can provide a team is the ability for season ticket holders to resell unwanted

seats. Many teams allow season ticket holders to post individual game tickets for resale

on a team-approved and authorized website. This provides a safe and secure way to

sell tickets and gives the buyer peace of mind that tickets are authentic. Ticketmaster

was already providing primary ticket services to most NFL teams, but in December of

2007 the NFL selected Ticketmaster as their ofﬁcial online secondary ticket exchange

Earliest known baseball ticket.

Courtesy of the National Baseball Hall

of Fame and Museum.

Ticket Operations History and Background

provider and offered “TicketExchange” to the teams. This new agreement allowed

Ticketmaster to compete in a growing new business category. The Denver Broncos

Football Club reached a secondary market partnership with Ticketmaster a year earlier

(October of 2006) and was already offering this added value service to season ticket

holders and fans.

Types of cusToMers

Season Ticket Accounts

Reese (2004) and Johnson and Reese (2011) identify season ticket holders as the ﬁ-

nancial foundation of any sport organization since they purchase tickets for an entire

season. The ﬁrst known references to season tickets were in baseball during the late

1870s. The ﬁrst reference appeared in the Morning Herald of Titusville, Pennsylvania,

which referred to the White Stockings, now the Chicago Cubs, having 150 honor-

ary members for the 1870 season. According to the article, each paid $10.00 for the

year and received a season ticket (“Chicago Cubs,” 2010; Morris, 2006). In 1871, The

Cleveland Forest Citys announced two season ticket price levels—$10.00 for the pos-

sessor with a lady and carriage, or $6.00 for the ticket bearer alone (“Cleveland,” 2010;

Morris, 2006).

Mini Plans

Mini plans, also referred to as multi-game plans, are a valuable ticketing option since

many fans either cannot attend all games or cannot afford tickets for the entire season

(Johnson & Reese, 2011). Mini plans may be constructed in a variety of ways based on

the type of sport, number of home games, etc., in order to maximize revenue.

Premium Seating

Premium seating typically refers to luxury suites and club seats. These seating options

have become one of the primary sources of revenue for sport organizations (Reese &

Johnson, 2011). Both suites and club seats may be sold on a season or individual games

basis. Both seating options offer more amenities than general season tickets, including

improved sight lines, upscale food and beverages, private concourses and restrooms,

and convenient parking, to name a few (Johnson & Reese, 2011).

Individual Game Tickets

According to Reese (2004) and Johnson and Reese (2011), any seat locations that re-

main after completion of season ticket sales and the seat improvement/upgrade process

are offered to fans on an individual game basis.

Group Tickets

Group tickets are individual game tickets that have been packaged to attract groups

of people such as youth sports leagues, churches, and local businesses. Group pack-

ages may also include themes such as certain dress, costumes, etc., to gain entrance at

a discount. Amenities such as concerts, ﬁreworks, etc., are also used to attract groups

(Johnson & Reese, 2011).

Chapter One

TickeT operaTions funcTions

In order to properly serve ticket customers, there are a variety of different functions

routinely provided in a professional ticketing environment. These functions include,

but are not limited to: facility relocations, season ticket transfers, the opportunity to

upgrade seat locations, the ability to be placed on a season ticket waiting list in loca-

tions where demand exceeds supply, the use of ticket lotteries for post-season tick-

ets, ticket forwarding, ticket replacement, and the ability for season ticket holders and

guests to pick up tickets at a Will Call.

Facility Relocations

Each facility relocation is unique, so several factors are taken into consideration: ar-

chitectural features, seating capacity, introduction of increased premium seating, and

season ticket holder base, for example. The Denver Broncos were the ﬁrst modern day

professional football team to relocate approximately 72,000 season ticket holder seats

into a new stadium with approximately the exact same capacity, in this case around

76,000 seats. This necessitated a very small margin of error, as each piece had to ﬁt

into the overall puzzle. Most new NFL stadiums have a larger seating capacity than

their predecessors. Relocation into INVESCO Field at Mile High (the new stadium)

from Mile High Stadium (the former stadium) was affected by architectural design

and other design characteristics of the new stadium, including a Club Level and an

increased number of luxury suites. The primary goal of the Denver Broncos’ new sta-

dium relocation was to relocate season ticket holders to the most similar area/location

in the new stadium to their seats at Mile High Stadium. Final determination regarding

the relocation of season ticket holders took into account the following:

• Desire of current season ticket holders to upgrade to Club Level seating (Club

Seating did not exist at Mile High Stadium)

• Current seat location of the season ticket account holders and the availability

of seats in their preferred areas

• Relative priority numbers of season ticket holders

• The location of seating for disabled patrons and the needs of disabled patrons

• Seating capacity of approximately 76,000—all seats in the new stadium have

seat backs and cup holders (Mile High Stadium had several thousand bleacher

seats)

The ﬁnal determining factor was a questionnaire each season ticket holder was

given the opportunity to complete in order to include more speciﬁc information rela-

tive to his/her speciﬁc situation (i.e., seats in separate locations, aisle seating, ADA

[disability] seating, sitting next to other account holders, etc.).

Season Ticket Transfer Policy

Season ticket transfer policies vary by team in the NFL . For many organizations sea-

son ticket accounts are nontransferable with a few exceptions. If the account is held in

Ticket Operations History and Background

a business name the account in its entirety can be transferred to a business afﬁliate,

partnership, corporation, or LLC. The other transfer exception is to an immediate

family member, deﬁned as parent, spouse, child, or sibling.

Season Ticket Holder Seat Improvements

Seat improvement requests from account holders are accepted and based on account

priority number and seat availability. Account priority numbers are assigned when the

account is ﬁrst established with the organization. The priority number may be a nu-

merical number or the date and time the account was established. Season ticket hold-

ers requesting a seating location change are queued by priority number and given the

opportunity to exchange seat locations based on availability (Reese, 2004).

Season Ticket Waiting List

Season ticket account holders are the life blood for professional teams (Reese, 2004).

In the NFL monies generated by season ticket holders (reserved and premium seating)

rank as a top three revenue stream for most if not all teams. Some teams are fortunate

enough to have several thousand, if not tens of thousands, in queue to purchase season

tickets. Each season after the seat improvement process is complete, tickets teams will

begin contacting those ﬁrst in line on the waiting list for the opportunity to purchase

season tickets. More often than not, the only seats available are all located in the upper

level of the facility.

Ticket Lotteries

Ticket lotteries usually only occur when ticket demand will outweigh ticket supply.

Lotteries are typically held for high-proﬁle events for which tickets are scarce, such

as post-season events. If a team participates in a post-season contest for which there is

more ticket demand than supply, a lottery is typically held to distribute tickets in a fair

manner based on account priority. All season ticket account holders are automatically

eligible and entered into the lottery. The lottery is “weighted” so that season ticket ac-

count holders with the lower priority numbers (those with the highest seniority) have

a greater opportunity to be selected. The timing of lotteries, if they are needed, is de-

termined by the respective governing body in conjunction with the sport organization.

Ticket Forwarding

Ticket forwarding is sometimes offered by a sport organization as a season ticket

holder amenity. It allows the season ticket holder to cancel an original “hard ticket”

and forward a virtual ticket to another fan. The virtual ticket cancels the original bar-

code and generates a new barcode. The new ticket is formatted as a printable ﬁle and

may be printed at the respective ticket ofﬁce or even on a home or ofﬁce printer to be

presented for admission at the facility.

Stolen and Lost/Destroyed Tickets (Duplicate Tickets)

To accommodate season ticket holders, if tickets are stolen, destroyed or lost, the

season ticket account holder of record can notify a sport organization and request

Chapter One

duplicate tickets. Duplicate tickets must be picked up in person with a valid photo

identiﬁcation.

Will Call

Will Call is an important fan amenity for any stadium, arena, or event facility. Will

Call is viewed as an important customer service “touch point” and opportunity for

face-to-face direct fan interaction. Tickets for any event hosted at a facility can usually

be left at one central Will Call location. An envelope will be ﬁlled out for each person

picking up tickets at Will Call. Individuals picking up tickets at Will Call must pres-

ent a valid photo identiﬁcation and will be asked to sign for the envelope. Individuals

leaving tickets at Will Call assume all risk of loss or incorrect ticket redistribution.

chapTer suMMary

Tickets of various types have been used throughout history for a variety of purposes.

Whether to provide exclusivity, limit attendance, manage trafﬁc ﬂow, or generate rev-

enue, tickets have been a steadfast part of sport event experiences for centuries. Their

presence provides a constant historical reminder of where sport has been. Ticketing

has also come a long way since pottery shards and tessera were used to gain access to

ancient facilities. Many modern sports facilities now register driver’s licenses or credit

cards to provide a “ticketless” system for fans to access facilities. In the years to come,

it will be interesting to see how the discipline of ticket operations continues to evolve.

learning acTiviTy

In this activity, your task is to select your favorite professional sports team and do some

research on season ticket sales. Many teams offer media guides for sale or for free on

their respective websites. You should attempt to answer the following questions:

1. In what year was the team established?

2. How many season ticket holders (or total seats) has the team had for each year

since inception?

3. What percent of total facility capacity is comprised of season ticket holders as

compared to seats offered for sale individually?

4. Do season ticket holders receive a per-game discount as compared to seat loca-

tions offered on a per-game basis?

Answering these questions may provide an interesting perspective on the ﬁnancial

stability of the sport organization. Generally, the more season ticket holders an organi-

zation has, the more ﬁnancial secure it becomes.