The Web Foundation was established in 2009 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee,
inventor of the World Wide Web. Our mission is to establish the open
web as a public good and a basic right.
This paper has been prepared by Dhanaraj Thakur and Lauran Potter,
with inputs from members of the Women’s Rights Online Network.
Additional inputs were provided by Mara Silvestri, Sonia Jorge, Nanjira
Sambuli, and Ingrid Brudvig.
Copyright, World Wide Web Foundation, CC BY 4.0
Introduction
3
01 The Digital Gender Gap is
Threatening Global
Development
4
02 The Path to Universal
Access is
Gender-Responsive
6
03 How to Design a
Gender-Responsive Policy
9
04 Next Steps
13
05 Annex
14
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
A
s the digital revolution forges ahead, world leaders have
recognised the critical importance of bringing the billions
still oine today into the digital fold. Stemming the tide of
growing income inequality and achieving sustainable global
development is largely dependent on enabling everyone,
everywhere, to benet from the opportunities aorded by
a connection to the digital economy.
The importance of achieving universal, aordable
internet access is underscored by its explicit inclusion as a
target (9c) in the Sustainable Development Goals. However,
this goal will remain unachievable as long as the signicant
digital gender gap remains. Indeed, closing the digital
divide means closing the gender digital divide.
This brief examines whether the policy eorts needed
to connect women — who are less likely to be connected
than men — are being put into place in low- and middle-
income countries across the world. It provides the most
recent global assessment of national Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) and broadband policies.
Our research nds that only a handful of governments
have taken any action at the policy level, and that even
the steps taken in these instances are inadequate to
advance true progress toward digital equality. This nding
reects the very limited progress that has been made
since previous assessments (most notably those by the
Broadband Commission in 2013 and the Web Foundation in
2014) revealed similarly serious shortcomings in advancing
women’s opportunities for online access and use.
Governments need to take responsibility and act now.
This brief outlines concrete steps policymakers should take
to ensure that women are oered the same opportunities
as men to connect and empower themselves through the
internet.
“The ideal Internet is one
where women can innovate,
exchange ideas, express
our sexuality, run our
businesses and participate
in society on equal terms
with our male counterparts.”
Fundación Karisma
www.webfoundation.org
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Today, less than half the world’s population is online
and able to participate in the digital world (ITU 2017).
Women comprise the majority of the unconnected. Across
the globe, over 2 billion women are estimated to be
oine, pushing them further to the margins of the global
political economy, and leaving men to reap the benets of
connectivity. Web Foundation research from 2015 found
women in poor, urban communities to be 50% less likely
to use the internet than their male counterparts, and the
latest data from the ITU conrms this trend, showing a
12% gap in internet access between men and women.
As Figure 1 shows, this gap is particularly large in Asia
(17%) and Africa (25%). Even in Latin America, where the
gap in internet use between men and women is relatively
small (1%), large dierences in women’s internet access
between countries in the region — compare Bolivia’s
13% gender gap in internet use with Jamaica’s gap of
-14% (meaning that women are more likely to use the
internet than men — suggest that the digital gender gap
should be a signicant concern throughout the region.
1
1 See http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2017/
Individuals%20using%20the%20Internet%20by%20gender.xls
(Accessed Aug 14, 2017).
THE DIGITAL
GENDER GAP IS
THREATENING
GLOBAL
DEVELOPMENT
44
Women face a number of barriers to online access. While
these obstacles vary between regions and countries, the
most signicant include: (1) limited digital skills and know-
how; (2) the high cost of data and internet-enabled devices;
and (3) a lack of relevant online content, which contributes
to a perceived low-value in using precious resources to
connect.
Even where women have access, they are less
likely than men to make full use of the opportunities
associated with connectivity. The 2015 Web Foundation
survey found women to be less likely to use the internet
to access information, search for jobs, or engage in civic
or political spaces — a reection of how existing gender
inequalities manifest themselves online (Web Foundation
2015). Similarly, a survey of mobile phone internet users
in Kenya (where a signicant wage gap exists), found that
women were more likely than men to purchase smaller and
cheaper data bundles, limiting the kinds of activities and
the amount of time they can spend online (A4AI 2017).
While the digital gender gap remains large,
the good news is that the majority of the obstacles
to overcoming this gap can be addressed through
smart policy— policy that considers the unique
barriers to connectivity faced by women and lays
out concrete steps for improving internet access
and use. Unfortunately, despite increased lip
service to the importance of a gendered approach
to ICT policy, policymakers across the globe are
failing to take the steps needed to turn these
words into action.
2 Note,theseguresdierslightlyfromtheregionalgendergapininternetuseresultspresentedintheITU’s“FactsandFigures2017”becausethispaperonlylooksatthe58
low and middle income countries included A4AI’s 2017AordabilityReport, and not all countries covered by the ITU.
Figure 1 - Gender gap in the internet use, average per region
(low- and middle-income countries) - 2016
(Source: A4AI calculations based on ITU 2017 data)
2
Section 1: The Digital Gender Gap is Threatening Global Development
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2.1 Policy to Empower Women Online
The right policy environment is critical to the success
ofanylong-termeorttobridgethegendergapin
internet access and use, and, ultimately, to achieving
universal,aordableinternetaccess.Countrieswithan
ICT or broadband policy that clearly outlines targets and
strategies for increasing internet penetration tend to have
higher rates of broadband adoption (World Bank 2016)
and lower broadband prices (A4AI2015). These policies
identify investment mechanisms to achieve policy goals,
areupdatedregularlytoreecttheevolvingpolicyneeds
of new technologies, and include measurable, time-
bound targets for improving access and reducing prices.
Closing the digital divide means closing
the gender digital divide — a feat that
will require policies that include all of the
aforementioned characteristics, as well
as a gender-responsive approach to the
development and implementation of the
policy.
Gender-responsive broadband planning is
not just about making policy for women; rather,
it is policy that ensures that all groups have equal
opportunities to access and make use of broadband
services. The more people that come online, the
more a person is able to connect with friends and
family, increase business opportunities, organise, and
share knowledge and ideas. Thus, gender-responsive
broadband policies will also be successful broadband
policies.
THE PATH TO
UNIVERSAL
ACCESS IS
GENDER-
RESPONSIVE
What is a gender-responsive policy?
A gender-responsive ICT policy is one that equally considers
and addresses the connectivity challenges and needs for all
groups in society, and takes into particular consideration
the unique challenges faced by women when it comes to
accessing and using the internet. In so doing, it helps to
ensure equal outcomes for women and men.
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Section 2: The Path to Universal Access is Gender-Responsive
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Developing a truly gender-responsive ICT policy starts
with the recognition that technology development
and use are both subject to existing socio-economic
biases and institutional discrimination. From this base,
policymakerscanbegintoidentifythespecicchallenges
and barriers that women and girls face in accessing and
using broadband, and can develop the appropriate policy
responses to reduce the gap.
2.2 Measuring the Global State of
Gender-Responsive ICT Policy
While policymakers increasingly appear to recognise the
critical nature of closing the digital gender gap for both
national and global development goals, our research
shows that countries are falling woefully short when
it comes to developing and implementing the gender-
responsive policies needed to do so.
A4AI conducted an expert survey of58low-and
middle-income countries across Latin America and the
Caribbean, Africa, and Asia between June and September
2016 to assess the existence and implementation of
policies and regulations that can lower broadband costs
and expand access.
1
This survey included a question to
assess the extent to which a country’s broadband policy
was gender-responsive:
To what extent has the government implemented
concrete policy goals for gender equity in internet
access and use?
Each country was scored on a range from 0 to 10,
with 10 indicating the existence of policy designed to
encourage increased access, training and use of the
internet for women and girls, with concrete, measurable
targets for ICT gender equity, and adequate funding
dedicated to achieving these targets.
2
Countries with
weaker scores were more likely to have limited integration
of policies and plans to increase access, with men and
boys having greater access, training and use of the
internet than women and girls.
On average, countries scored just 2.73 out of 10,
indicating very little to no discussion of the digital
gender gap and possible responses to address the
problem at the policy level.
3
1 The survey results are subject to an external peer review process, and an internal review by A4AI. See full methodology here.
2 See Annex for full scoring criteria.
3 This compares unfavourably to all other policy areas (e.g., spectrum management, competition policy, infrastructure sharing, universal access and service funds, etc)
assessedinthesurveyswherecountriesscoredonaverage5outof10,indicatingmoreconcertedlevelsofactivity.
The lack of attention paid to gender issues in ICT planning
andpolicyisnotspecictoanyoneregion—countries
across all regions are failing to take the steps needed
to address growing gaps in women’s access to and use
of the internet.
Acrossall58countriessurveyed,thehighestscore
awardedwasave(outof10)—andonlysixcountries
achieved this score. Each of these six countries has
recognised in some form the need to address the digital
gender gap at the policy level, or has developed national-
level programmes targeted at improving internet access
and use for women and girls, but none of them have any
measurable targets for improving women’s access and
use as part of a comprehensive strategy, or national ICT
or broadband policy.
Table 1- Summary of country scores from the A4AI country survey
of gender-responsive broadband policies (Source: A4AI, 2016)
Score Level & Qualications
(Score Range: 0-10)
Number of Countries
Policieswithgenderspecic
targets for training and access,
along with adequate budgetary
allocation(score>5)
0
Some sub-national or national
policies encouraging access and
trainingforwomen;noocial
targets exist. Some programmes/
projects being implemented at
thenationallevel(score5)
6
(Botswana, Costa Rica,
Dominican Republic,
Mexico, Nigeria, Turkey)
While policies do not include
targets or plans to improve
women’s access and training there
is evidence of some discussion
or action in government; several
programmes/projects in place,
mostly at sub-national level (score 4)
15
Policies do not include targets
or plans to improve women’s
access and training and there a
few examples of discussion or
action in government; very few
programmes/projects in place,
mostly at sub-national level (score 3)
15
Little to no incorporation of gender
equity concerns in plans or policies
with no evidence of awareness
or discussion of the issue in
government, no programmes/
projects in place (score < 3)
22
Total
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3.1 Policymakers Must R.E.A.C.T.
As these results illustrate, most countries surveyed have
woefully inadequate ICT or broadband policies to respond
to the connectivity needs of women. Without a specic focus
on improving access and use opportunities for women,
policies will continue to exclude half their population.
Creating a more accessible and empowering internet
for women requires policy that focuses on a number of key
areas, easily remembered as R.E.A.C.T: Rights, Education,
Access, Content, and Targets. Below, we examine why each
policy area is important to closing the digital gender gap
and explore what countries are doing to tackle each, in
the hope that these might be instructive to policymakers
everywhere.
3.2 Rights
Protect and enhance everyone’s rights online.
When women are online they face additional challenges
that limit their ability to use the internet. Although it varies
across countries, women (especially young women) are
more likely than men to face harassment and other forms
of abuse online (Web Foundation, 2015). Governments
need to address this problem if they are to ensure that
everyone can benet from the internet.
In a number of countries, laws to prevent and
discourage online abuse exist, but are poorly enforced
and may unintentionally have negative impacts on women.
Uganda’s Computer Misuse Act 2011
1
, for example,
criminalises cyber harassment, oensive communication,
and cyberstalking, but no cases have been prosecuted under
these sections. Furthermore, the police and the judiciary
do not appear to be trained adequately to understand how
the operationalisation of these provisions might benet
women’s privacy and safety online. This has implications
for access — the Web Foundation’s research in Uganda
1 AdaptedfromWomenofUgandaNetwork(2015)“Women’sRightsOnline-A
research and policy advocacy initiative on women’s empowerment through
theweb-CountryReport-Uganda.”Unpublished.WashingtonDC:Web
Foundation.
HOW TO DESIGN
A GENDER-
RESPONSIVE
POLICY
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Section 3: How to Design a Gender-Responsive Policy
found that women’s access to the internet may be limited
and controlled by men and, worryingly, that an increasingly
hostile online environment is causing women and girls to
disengage online, as a result of fear for their safety. Indeed,
as the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
states, “the gender digital divide is both a consequence and
cause of violations of women’s human rights.”
In Cameroon, a sweeping cybercrime law allows
communications to be intercepted, mandates the retention
and storage of trac data, and places obligations on
network providers to help intercept and store electronic
communications — practices which undermine the privacy
of all internet users, including women.
2
In addition to
invading the privacy of women online, these laws can also
be used to restrict women’s freedom of speech online. A
female activist in Jamaica, who used social media to identify
perpetrators of violence against women, was arrested (and
eventually released) for “malicious communication” under
the country’s Cybercrimes Act — an act originally passed
in part to prevent online abuse against women.
It is important for policymakers to recognise the
importance of protecting women’s rights online and to
work to prevent online harassment. It is equally important to
avoid legislation and policy that, however well-intentioned,
can actually limit women’s rights to freedom of expression
and privacy online, as well as their ability to use the internet
as they wish.
3.3 Education
Use education to equip everyone – especially
women – with the skills they need to access and
use the web eectively.
2 FromInternetSansFrontiers(2015)“Women’s Rights Online - A research and policy advocacy initiative on women’s empowerment through the web - Country Report -
Cameroon.”Paris:InternetSansFrontières.Pg.20.
3 AdaptedfromParadigmInitiativeNigeria(2016)“Women’sRightsOnline-Aresearchandpolicyadvocacyinitiativeonwomen’sempowermentthroughtheweb-Country
Report-Nigeria.”Unpublished.WashingtonDC:WebFoundation.
Increasing skills training and education is another path
toward reducing the digital divide and improving the ability
of women and girls to make use of the internet. In many
countries, men are more likely to possess the relevant
skills to make eective use of the internet. Policymakers
need to ensure that adequate programmes are in place
to address the digital skills gap, paying particular attention
to the needs of women and girls at all educational levels.
Nigeria is one country that has taken steps to improve
women’s digital skills. The country’s National Broadband
Plan
3
requires the Federal Ministry of Communications
Technology to monitor the number of women without
access to the internet, and to provide incentives for private
educational centres and civil society organisations to train
more women to use the internet. As a result, the Ministry
has partnered with a number of private groups to develop
ICT capacity building initiatives for Nigerian women and
girls.
However, these programmes tend to reach women and
girls who already have access; expanding these programmes
to those who are not yet online would increase their
impact. More importantly, these initiatives are not part of
a government-wide policy for gender inclusion and ICTs, but
are undertaken in an ad hoc manner, or where supported
by donor agencies. These eorts can therefore be improved
by a policy that comprehensively addresses the need for
skills training among women and girls in dierent age
groups (with adequate budget allocation), with incentives to
promote public-private partnerships, and clear measurable
targets.
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Section 3: How to Design a Gender-Responsive Policy
3.4 Access
Deliver aordable access to an open web.
One of the main obstacles to increasing women’s access is
the high cost of getting online. As reported in the 2015-16
Aordability Report, analysis of sex-disaggregated income
data from ten countries in Latin America and the Caribbean
found that the relative cost to connect was higher for
female-headed households (and highest for single parent
female headed households) — perhaps not surprising given
the gender wage gap around the world.
Costa Rica’s Fondo Nacional de Telecomunicaciones
(the country’s Universal Service and Access Fund) runs a
programme that indirectly addresses this problem. The
Connected Homes Programme (Hogares Conectados)
provides a subsidy to low-income households to purchase
xed internet service and a computer, and approximately
95% of the households that qualify for a subsidy under
this programme are headed by women. As a result, the
initiative has been recognised internationally as a way to
support access for women and low-income groups.
Extending this initiative to promote access to mobile
broadband services and other forms of access will help
to strengthen its eects and enable connectivity for even
more people. Similar programmes that target low-income
groups (who are often disproportionately women) or women
themselves can help redress the gender digital gap in many
countries.
3.5 Content
Ensure relevant and empowering content for
women is available and used.
In addition to expanding access opportunities, governments
also need to ensure that relevant content is available in local
languages and is being created locally. Doing so will ensure
the internet is relevant and useful for local communities,
and will increase the incentive for people to spend money
and resources on connecting.
In Kenya
4
, the ICT Authority is collaborating with
organisations and individuals to make local data that is
relevant to citizens (e.g., information and datasets regarding
health and agricultural practices) available via a government
website (opendata.go.ke). Though a laudable initiative, the
data currently provided does not suciently address issues
4 AdaptedfromInternationalAssociationofWomeninRadio&Television(2015)“Women’sRightsOnline-Aresearchandpolicyadvocacyinitiativeonwomen’s
empowermentthroughtheweb-CountryReport-Kenya.”Unpublished.WashingtonDC:WebFoundation.
aecting women, including information on reproductive
health, AIDS, antenatal and postnatal care, violence against
women, and women’s legal rights (e.g., information on
voting, land ownership, marriage, divorce and child custody).
Programmes designed to encourage the participation
of women and girls in the digital economy and, specically, to
encourage them to become content creators, are generally
run through private initiatives. Separately, a number of
civil society organisations (e.g., the Federation of Women
Lawyers, the Federation of Women Educationists, and
Cradle) are active in providing online information about
women’s rights; most information on women’s health,
including reproductive health and sexual health rights and
services, is provided by private individuals on Facebook or
blogs.
3.6 Targets
Keeping policymakers accountable.
For any policy to be successful it must be guided by
measurable and time-bound targets. Measurable implies
that the data collection required to support policy
analysis can be done feasibly and on a regular basis;
where necessary, it should be supported with adequate
resources. Time-bound implies that both end-goals and
intermediate targets are linked to specic dates (e.g., achieve
80% internet use among all adult women in 5 years). Having
such targets means that all key stakeholders — including
ministries, the regulator, mobile network operators and
other internet service providers, and civil society — have
a clear understanding of the policy’s goals, and can work
to support the realisation of these objectives.
Unfortunately, such targets were absent from all
policies reviewed for this report. While some countries
recognised the importance of general time-bound targets
for broadband policies, and included goals on increasing
penetration over a specic number of years, none included
targets for women or girls. Having these targets will provide
governments a way to monitor progress made toward
closing the digital gender gap and, ultimately, the global
digital divide.
1010
04
No country will achieve universal
access without overcoming
the digital gender gap.
4.1 Overcoming the Policy
Barrier to Universal Access
The existence of the gender digital gap is fundamentally
a result of policy failure. While a few countries have taken
some steps in their policies to address the gap in access
and use, these are insucient and much work remains to
be done by all the countries surveyed.
In addition to developing policies that focus on
rights, education, access, content, and targets, as outlined
above, it is critical that women are included in the actual
policymaking process. Policy designed for all citizens — and
particularly policy focused on aecting women — should
be designed with women, and we must work to secure
women’s participation in the policymaking process.
In many countries, women’s organisations have
made signicant contributions to incorporating gender
perspectives in policy across various sectors such as health,
education, and the environment. Unfortunately, this is not
the case in many other countries, where women’s voices
are left entirely out of the policymaking process.
As with all policy development, it is important that
the government and its partners ensure that supporting
analysis integrate gender considerations, from network
deployment analysis to universal access strategies and
priorities. Another strategy is to establish quotas to ensure
the equal participation of women and other marginalised
groups in all programmes supported by national policies
and plans, especially rural and poor populations.
Better broadband policies oer a clear path to
improving women’s internet access and use, and to moving
forward toward universal access goals. In this brief, we
have outlined steps that can be taken to make policies
more gender-responsive. It is now time for governments
to take responsibility and immediate action to maximise
the benets of the internet and emerging technologies for
all people.
NEXT STEPS
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05
ANNEX
Expert Survey Question and Scoring Guide
To what extent has the government implemented concrete
policy goals for gender equity in internet access and use?
Scoring Criteria
10 5 0
Thereisanocial
national policy or
directive designed to
encourage increased
access, training and
use of the internet
for women and girls,
with concrete targets
for gender equity in
thisarea.Specicand
adequate resources
and programmes
are allocated and
identiedforthat
purpose and the
programme is being
clearly implemented,
with evidence of
success in some areas
where the initiative is
being implemented.
There may be sub-
national and/or national
policies encouraging
increased access, training
and use of the internet
by women and girls,
butnoocialnational
concrete targets exist. In
the absence of a national
target, there may be
public recognition from a
seniorgovernmentgure
(e.g. Cabinet minister)
and/or parliamentarians
encouraging greater
female access to
the internet.
There is very little, if
any, discussion at any
level of government
about the need to
encourage greater
access to and use
of the Internet by
women and girls, or
of increased training
in how to use the
internet for women
and girls. There are no
related concrete policy
targets and budget
allocations at all.
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Section 5: Annex
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Scoring and evidence thresholds:
For a score of above 0 to be awarded: there should be
evidence of a commitment in government policies or plans
to increase access, training and use of internet to women
and girls aiming at gender equity in this eld, with concrete
targets set in such plans.
For a score of above 3 to be awarded: there should be
evidence that this is only being implemented in a few
pilots and is not yet widespread. Men and boys still have
far greater access, training and use of the internet than
women and girls reaching 10% of the target groups.
For a score of above 5 to be awarded: there should be
evidence that implementation is becoming more widespread
and budget allocation has been made to enable scale-up to
reach the majority of women and girls across the country.
For a score above 8 to be awarded: there should be
evidence of widespread implementation and almost equal
access, training and use of the internet by women and
girls reaching 50% and above of the target groups, with
evidence of success.
Scoring Guidance
For many countries a large gender digital divide exists; see
for example recent research by the Web Foundation which
shows that poor women in urban areas in ten developing
countries are 50% less likely to be connected to the internet
than men in the same age group, with similar levels of
education and household income. If broadband plans
are to improve internet aordability and access within a
country they will also have to address such gender based
divides where they exist. The purpose of this question is to
assess the extent to which a country’s broadband policies
address this problem and take concrete actions to close
the gender gap.
Please note the following:
•
A qualifying initiative or directive is a plan by the
government to support increased access, training
and use of the internet and related ICTs for women
and girls.
•
For the purpose of this indicator, researchers are asked
to focus on whether a directive exists and its degree
of implementation.
•
Access does not equal use - the ocial directive need to
emphasise both (and may therefore include references
to training, for example). Thus, even for those few
countries where access between males and females is
fairly equal it is still important to address this question
as internet use and impact between these groups may
not be the same.
Source Guidance
•
Government plans and/or directives, most likely
prepared by the Ministry of Communications;
• Government budgets;
• Speeches by government leaders;
•
Review of government plans / schemes on training
incentives for women and girls on the use of web and
related technologies;
•
Interviews with gender and/or technology policy
specialists in the government;
•
Interviews with members of civil society organizations
dedicated to gender issues or gender and technology
issues;
• Reports published by the media, academic and policy
journals, and development and multilateral bodies (e.g.,
World Bank, IFC, OECD, African Development Bank).
13
