SECTION I

Dancing Cat Records Hawaiian Slack Key Information Booklet, SECTION I:

A BRIEF HISTORY OF

HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY GUITAR

(KI HO`ALU)

Table of Contents:

1. Introduction

2. Origins of Slack Key

3. King Kalakaua (1836-1891) & Queen Lili`uokalani (1838-1917)

4. Four Slack Key Styles

5. Slack Key Sub-Traditions

6. Slack Key Tunings

7. Slack Key Influences From Outside Hawai’i

8. Gabby Pahinui, Sonny Chillingworth, and Leonard Kwan – The Three Most Influential

Slack Key Guitarists in History

- (and Atta Issacs, Ray Kane, Keola Beamer, Led Kaapana, & Peter Moon, and the

other most influential players)

9. The Most Influential Slack Key Albums

10. Slack Key Since 1970

11. Recording Labels

____________________________________________________________________________________

1. Introduction

Hawaiian Slack Key guitar (

ki ho`alu

) is one of the world’s great acoustic guitar traditions. However, due

to Hawai`i’s isolation (the islands lie furthest in the world from any major land masses),

ki ho`alu

remains one of the least known traditions.

Ki ho`alu

, which literally means “loosen the key,” is the

Hawaiian-language name for this unique finger-picked style. The strings (or “keys”) are “slacked” to

produce many beautiful tunings, almost always based on a Major tonality. They often contain a full Major

chord, or a chord with a major seventh note, or a chord with a sixth note. Each tuning produces a

characteristic resonance behind the melody; and each has its own characteristic color and flavor, like a

beautiful basket of fruit.

Many Hawaiian songs and Slack Key guitar pieces reflect Hawaiian and universal themes: stories of the

past, feelings of the present, and aloha for loved ones; the ocean, bays, rivers, and waterfalls; the

volcanoes, mountains, and valleys; the forests, plants, animals, and birds; the sea, the wind, and the

land itself.

Slack Key master Ray Kane (1925-2008) recalled how his best-known composition

Punahele

, which

appears on his album PUNAHELE (Dancing Cat Records), came to him one night in 1938: "Back in those

days there were no cars; it was pitch black. So I sit there in the dark in the nice cool breeze and I hear

waves bouncing on the sand and see the moonlight flicker on the water. It inspired me, something so

nice. So mellow."

The great Slack Key guitarist and composer, Keola Beamer, similarly said, "Wherever we go, my wife

and I always pause and listen to the environment; the wind blowing through the hala leaves, the water,

the birds. I get a lot of inspiration from those moments." Such a moment inspired his album KOLONAHE.

Beamer recalled, "I was out in a distant valley sitting under some hau trees enjoying the space, the quiet,

when all of a sudden, the most beautiful, refreshing breeze came through. It caressed everything in its

path: the trees, the grass, the stones. It changed the whole complexion of that day."

And the great composer and Slack Key guitarist, Dennis Kamakahi, said that as a composer, “Every

place you go, you meet new people, see new things, and write about what you feel. I’ve written songs

about other places, but most of the songs are about the love and beauty of Hawai`i and about special

people.”

These currents run deeply in Slack Key guitar playing, as accompaniment to vocals, as instrumental

compositions, or as instrumental interpretations of vocal pieces. Drawn from the heart and soul out

through the fingers, Slack Key music is sweet and soulful.

Slack Key’s unique sound comes partly from techniques such as the hammer-on (or the add-on), an

ornament produced by plucking a note and immediately fretting on that string to produce a second

higher tone; and the pull-off, produced by plucking a string and immediately pulling the finger off that

string, sounding a second lower note that is either open or fretted by another finger. A great example is

Ray Kane’s composition

Punahele

, on his recording PUNAHELE (Dancing Cat Records).

These techniques mimic the yodels and falsetto vocals (

leo ki’eki’e

) rooted in ancient chants and common

in Hawaiian singing. Also common are harmonics (“chiming”), produced by lightly touching the strings at

certain points on the fretboard; and slides, in which one or two treble notes are plucked and then slid up

or down to sound another note or notes. A beautiful effect is sometimes created when a guitarist is

singing, and the note or notes on the highest pitched strings sound like a second voice. This can be

heard at the end of Sonny Chillingworth’s version of

Ka Wai Lehua (`A`ala Ka Honua)

on his

recording SONNY SOLO (Dancing Cat Records), and also on George Kahumoku, Jr.’s version of

E Ho’i

I Ka Pili

on his recording HAWAIIAN LOVE SONGS (Dancing Cat Records).

All of these techniques enhance the expressions of aloha, joy, or longing, sometimes all in the same

song.

Like blues guitar, the Slack Key tradition is very flexible and can have great emotional depth. A guitarist

will often play the same song differently each time, sometimes changing tempos, or even tunings. As

guitarists learn to play in this very individualistic tradition, they find their own tunings, techniques,

arrangements, and repertoire.

One of

ki ho`alu

's three most influential Slack Key masters (along with the late Gabby Pahinui and the

late Sonny Chillingworth), the late Leonard Kwan, explained his playing style: "I use a lot of

variations. They make what you're playing sound more interesting. It's like when you're cooking. When

you put the spices in, it tastes better than just cooking plain. The principle is the same in music."

Variations, he said, are even more important for an instrumentalist like him. When someone sings, the

voice is the center of attention, "but when you play a Slack Key instrumental, to make it sound full, you

have to play the bass, the melody, and the harmonies, do the picking, and keep the rhythm. That's the

hard part."

In addition to those variations,

ki ho`alu

music reflects what emotions the musician has at the moment.

Guitarist George Kuo says, "It's a very personal kind of art, and it displays a lot of the person's feelings.

You can make it fit to the mood you're in. If you're feeling sad, you can make the notes really linger and

cry. And if you're feeling creative, you can really take off. You can speed up the song and make it

bouncy, or you can take a bouncy song and make it hypnotic and dreamy."

For Led Kaapana, who has an inexhaustible ability to improvise, the best improvisation is based on two

things - the song itself, and the mood of the moment, which changes each time the song is played:

“Everything you play, every time you play, there’s a mood, an energy. If you plug into it, the music just

flows. Even in a simple song, there are so many different ways to play the melody, the rhythm, the

harmony. It never stops if you stay open to it.”

And, in some cases, even the pace can change, notes Led, as he looks back on his earlier recordings with

the band Hui Ohana: “I see now that I speeded up the tempo on some [

ki ho`alu

songs] for some

reason. When I used to play back home on the Big Island, I kept more to the old style, smooth and slow;

but in the studio with Hui Ohana, I picked up the pace. Maybe it was the fast life of Honolulu.”

Cyril Pahinui, another great master of improvisation, says of his father Gabby: “I remember what my

daddy used to tell me. ‘No get lazy, Son. When you’re playing your music, you should always try to find

something new to say. If you look, you can always change the melody line a little or add some coloring.

Thanks to my dad, I can always keep adding things, and it’s comfortable for me.”

2. Origins of Slack Key

Music is one of the most mobile art forms. Several events led to the import of the guitar to Hawai`i.

European sailors around the beginning of the 19th century possibly introduced Hawaiians to the gut

string guitar, the ancestor of the modern nylon string guitar. Or, the instrument may have made its way

to the Islands around 1818 with the return of Hawaiians whom King Kamehameha l had sent to

Monterey, California, to assist the Argentine Navy.

A gift of cattle from England to Hawai`i in the late 1700s, and a subsequent

kapu

(taboo) on harming

them, resulted in an overpopulation of the steers. King Kamehameha III, around 1832, hired Mexican and

Spanish

vaqueros

(cowboys) from North America to teach Hawaiians how to handle the growing herds. In

the evenings around the campfire, the vaqueros -- many of whom worked on the Big Island, especially

around the Waimea region -- probably played their guitars, often two or more together, with one playing

the melody, and the other guitarist(s) playing the bass and chords (occasionally a gifted guitarist would

have played solo). In general, the guitarists played mainly to accompany singing.

This new instrument intrigued the Hawaiian cowboys

(paniolo)

, who had their own Hawaiian music

traditions. Given the long work hours, however, the Hawaiians probably did not have time to learn a lot

about this new music. When the

vaqueros

returned to their homelands a few years later, some gave their

guitars to the

paniolo

. The Hawaiians often retuned the guitar from the Standard Spanish Tuning (E-A-D-

G-B-E - from the lowest pitched to highest pitched string), usually by loosening, or slacking

the strings:

very often to tunings with a Major chord, called “Major Tunings” (such as the most popular G Major “Taro

Patch” Tuning - D-G-D-G-B-D - from the lowest pitched string to the highest); or to tunings with a

major seventh note in them, called “Wahine Tunings” (such as the popular G Wahine Tuning – D-G-D-

F# -B-D, and the popular C Wahine “Dropped C” or “Leonard’s C” Tuning – C-G-D-G-B-D); and

sometimes to tunings with the two highest pitched strings tuned a fifth interval apart, called “Mauna Loa

Tunings” (such as the popular C Mauna Loa Tuning, “Gabby’s C” – C-G-E-G-A-E).

(These four tunings listed just above are the four most popular tunings in the Slack Key tradition).

The result was guitar tunings with the open (unfretted) strings having the sweet sound that so

characterizes

ki ho`alu.

Also, the G Major and D seventh chords in the G Wahine Tuning (D-G-D-F# -B-D

– from the lowest pitched string to the highest) are the exact same voicings as the A Major chord and a

commonly used E seventh chord in the Standard Tuning (E-A-D-G-B-E), showing that this was an early

Slack Key tuning influenced by the Mexican and Spanish cowboys that brought their guitars and their

music to Hawai’i.

Geniuses of incorporating new elements, Hawaiians wove what they had learned of Mexican and Spanish

music into their traditional chants, songs, and rhythms, and created a new form of music that was

completely their own. Hawaiian musical traditions were the dominant force in their guitar music, as they

have always been each time other musical influences have come to Hawai’i from the rest of the world.

Some of the world’s other highly developed regional solo finger picking guitar traditions are listed below. Recordings of some of

these artists are available from Roots & Rhythm Mail Order, 6921 Stockton Avenue, El Cerrito, CA, 94530, (510) 526-8373,

www.rootsandrhythm.com; and from the Guitar Solo Store (GSP), 1411 Clement Street, San Francisco, CA, 94118, (415) 386-0395.

www.gspguitar.com

This is a list of some of the greatest artists playing in these traditions. It is not a complete or up to date list by any means. It is also

very difficult to ‘’classify’’ many of these artists – each artist is really a category onto themselves, and some come out of more than

one tradition. Even the traditions are sometimes hard to “name” – actually, categories really only tell you what someone is not – part

of the process of elimination – it is the individuality of each musician that really counts – one has to hear each musician.

(a) Spanish flamenco - Ramon Montoya, Paco de Lucia, Sabicas, Paco Pena, Carlos Montoya, Manitas De Plata, Juan Serrano,

Pepe Romero, Juan Martin, Vicente Amigo, Gerardo Nunez, Juan Miguel Canizares, Pepe Habichuela, Chicuelo, and Tomatino.

(b) Spanish and European classical guitar - Andres Segovia, Julian Bream, John Williams, Michael Lorimer, Agustin Barrios

Mangore, Christopher Parkening, Leo Brouwer, Narcisco Yepes, Angel Romero, Pepe Romero, Vincenzo Macaluso, Alirio Diaz,

Eliot Fisk, Liona Boyd, Benjamin Verdery, Stephen Robinson, Ida Presti, Alexandre Lagoya, Frederick Hand, Jorge Morel,

Andrew York, Sharon Isbin, David Tannenbaum, Manuel Barrueco, David Russell, and Kazuhito Yamashita.

 Brazil: Bola Sete, Baden Powell, Egberto Gismanti, Sete Aneis, Luiz Bonfá, Raphael Rabello, Agustin Barrios Mangore,

Laurindo Almeida, Paulo Bellinati, Nando Lauria, Marco Pereira, Romero Laubambo, Nonato Luiz, Sebastiaó Tapajós,

Oscar Castro-Neves, Carlos Barbosa-Lima, Garoto (Anibal Augusto Sardinha), Toquinho, Raphael Rabello, Ulisses Rocha,

Cristina Azuma, and Badi Assad. Also the American guitarist Charlie Byrd.

 Peru: Raul Garcia Zarate; and there are some unique tunings used in Peru:

F-Bb-D-G-C-E

G-Bb-D-G-C-E

D-A-D-F#-B-E – used for playing in the key of B minor

F-A-D-G-B-E – used for playing in the key of A minor

E-G-D-G-B-E

and Standard Tuning – E-A-D-G-B-E

- (mahalo to Daniel O’Donoghue for this information)

 Argentina: Cacho Tiaro, and Atahualpa Yupanqui

 Mexico: Antonio Bribiesca

 Puerto Rico: Jose Feliciano, and Ernesto Cordero

 The Bahamas: Joseph Spence

(d) Acoustic American country blues / ragtime guitar (especially from Mississippi, the Piedmont area of North Carolina,

Georgia, and Texas, as well as contemporary guitarists) - Blind Blake, Rev.Gary Davis, Robert Johnson, Lonnie Johnson,

Mississippi John Hurt, Elizabeth Cotton, Charlie Patton, Son House, Skip James, Bo Carter, Blind Willie McTell, Blind Willie

Johnson, Mance Lipscomb, John Jackson, Etta Baker, Big Bill Broonzy, Brownie McGee, Blind Lemon Jefferson, Furry Lewis, Henry

Thomas, Robert Wilkins, Scrapper Blackwell, Sleepy John Estes, Blind Boy Fuller, Tommy Johnson, Bukka White, Tampa Red,

Kokomo Arnold, Barbecue Bob (Robert Hicks), Casey Bill Weldon, Lead Belly (Huddie Ledbetter), Sleepy John Estes, Johnny

Shines, Robert Jr. Lockwood, Josh White, Memphis Minnie, Frank Stokes, Sister Rosetta Tharpe, Blind Boy Fuller, Snooks Eaglin,

Muddy Waters, Lightnin’ Hopkins, Fred McDowell, John Lee Hooker, Taj Mahal, Keb’ Mo’, John Cephas, Bob Brozman, Alan

Youngblood Hart, Roy Rogers, Corey Harris, Roy Book Binder, Catfish Keith, John Hammond Jr., and Rory Block.

(e) Tennessee/ Nashville based country/ jazz guitar - Merle Travis, Chet Atkins, Jerry Reed, John Knowles, Doc Watson, Mose

Rager, Sam McGee, Ike Everly, Roscoe Holcomb, Paul Yandell, Gamble Rogers, Thom Bresh, Buster B. Jones, Tommy

Emmanuel, Albert Lee, John Pell, Tommy Flint, Tommy Jones, Pat Bergeson, Mark Casstevens, Brent Rowen, Brent Mason,

Thumbs Carlisle, Peter Huttlinger, Doyle Dykes, Pat Donohue, Steven King, and Marcel Dadi.

(f) Solo jazz guitar (often electric guitar) – Ted Greene, George Van Epps, Lenny Breau, Ralph Towner, Martin Taylor, Joe Pass,

Jimmy Wyble, Bucky Pizzarelli, Joe Diorio, Phil deGruy, Charlie Byrd, Laurindo Almeida, Robert Conte, Cam Newton, Buddy Fite,

Howard Morgen, Ron Eschete, Stanley Jordan, Earl Klugh, Jim Nichols, Tuck Andress, and Tommy Crook.

(g) Contemporary blues / ragtime / jazz arrangements - Guy Van Duser, Rick Ruskin, Ry Cooder, David Lindley, Stefan

Grossman, Dave Laibman, Eric Schoenberg, Woody Mann, Duck Baker, Taj Mahal, Keb’ Mo’, Leo Wijnkamp Jr., Ton Van Bergeyk,

Steve Mann, Jorma Kaukonen, Pat Donohue, Mike Dowling, Leon Redbone, Dave Bromberg, Sam Mitchell, Steven King, Tom Ball,

Kenny Sultan, John Miller, John James, Mike Cooper, and Dave Van Ronk.

(h) Contemporary guitar based on American folk music and other influences - John Fahey, Bruce Cockburn, Alex deGrassi,

Michael Hedges, Daniel Hecht, Robbie Basho, George Cromarty, David Qualey, Leo Kottke, Walter Boruta, Fred Gerlack, Peter

Lang, John Roth, Michael Gulezian, Ed Wright, Brian Keane, Bill Mize, Harvey Reid, Toulouse Englehardt, Chris Proctor, Preston

Reed, Ed Gerhard, Dale Miller, Eric Tingstad, Phil Keaggy, Laurence Juber, Edgar Cruz, Woody Harris, Bob Hadley, Rick Foster,

William Ackerman, Stevan Pasero, Lewis Ross, Seth Austen, John Doan, Tinh Mahoney, Muriel Anderson, Al Petteway, Amy White,

Billy McLaughlin, Pat Kirtley, Stephen King, David Cullen, William Coulter, Robin Bullock, Steve Baughman, and Justin King.

(i) Contemporary guitarists from the British Isles and Europe - Pierre Bensusan, John Renbourn, Burt Jansch, Davey Graham,

Dick Gaughan, Martin Simpson, Martin Carthy, Adrian Legg, John Feeley, Dave Evans, El McMeen, Dan Ar Bras, Jacques

Stotzem, Peppino D’Agostino, Peter Finger, Richard Thompson, Colin Reid, Robin Bullock, and Dusan Bogdanovic.

(j) African acoustic guitar - Jean Bosco Mwenda (also known as Mwenda wa Bayeke), Pascal Diatta, Ali Farka Toure, D’Gary,

Solo Razaf, Erich Manana, Stephen Tsotsi Kasumali, Herbert Misango, Baubacar Traore, Habib Koite, Djelimady Tounkara, Baaba

Maal, Mansour Seck;

Hawaiian music never stops evolving, and yet it always remains in touch with its deep roots and

inspiration. Slack Key guitarist James “Bla” Pahinui remembers his father Gabby Pahinui telling him,

“Play whatever you feel, whatever makes you happy, but always keep Hawaiian music in your heart.”

And from Botswana: Ronnie Moipolai, and KP (Kabelo) Moipolai - [see them on You Tube] - and playing with 6 strings in the tuning

F- - - - C-F ; and sometimes with 5 strings with the tuning F-X-A-C-F-x ; and sometimes with 4 strings with the tuning F-X-A-C-F-x

- and playing in the keys of F and B Flat;

and the great “Blind Man and His Guitar” (who plays one wonderful solo instrumental piece called Isoka Labaleka (originally on 78

RPM), on the out-of-print anthology cassette tape SOUTH AFRICAN JIVE, VOLUME IV on the Woza Label).

(k) Classical Russian guitar - played in Standard Tuning (E-A-D-G-B-D); and sometimes on a seven-string guitar (with the tuning

D-G-B-D-G-B-D - from the lowest pitched string to the highest) - Boris Okunev and Leif Christensen.

(l) Guitarists from India (who usually play the guitar lap-style with a steel bar in the left hand) - Brij Bhushan Kabra, Debasish

Bhattacharya, and Vishwa Mohan Bhatt.

(m) Polynesian/Pacific Island guitar (also see footnote #4):

 Tahiti: Petiot Tauru and Michel Peves

 Samoa: Vainu’u Tu’igale’ava.

- According to guitarist Dennis Ladd, Samoan finger-style guitar is called ‘ini, and has not been played as much towards the

end of the 20

Century. Samoan guitarist Vainu`u Tu`igale`ava plays in at least six tunings (the 6th string is not used, and

here it is marked out with an “X”):

(1). Standard Tuning (X-A-D-G-B-E), called “Ki Sepaniolo” (meaning “Spanish Tuning” or “Standard Tuning”), and is mainly

played in the key of C.

(2). G Major Tuning (X-G-D-G-B-D), called “Ki Tu Fa” ] (which probably means “Fourth Position Key”).

(3). A variation of the G Major Tuning (X-F-D-G-B-D), called “Sui Ki A Le Ki Tu Fa” (meaning “Slack Key of the Open G” –

and “sui” means “change”, or “weaken”, which could also be taken to mean “slack”).

(4). D Wahine Tuning (X-A-D-F#-A-C#), sometimes called “Ki Salamo” (and also called “Repentance Tuning”).

(5). C Sixth, or C Mauna Loa Tuning (X-G-C-G-A-E), called “Sui Ki Maualuga” (and also called “High Slack Key”), with it’s

distinctive sound of the fourth string tuned down to the C note. Slack Key guitarist Leonard Kwan also used this tuning,

except with the lowest pitched sixth string tuned down to the low C note (C-G-C-G-A-E), on his song Pau Pilikia, on his

recording LEONARD KWAN–SLACK KEY MASTER–THE COMPLETE EARLY RECORDINGS (Hana Ola Records). Also,

Hawaiian Slack Key guitarist Sonny Chillingworth used a C Mauna Loa Tuning that he called “Samoan Mauna Loa Tuning”

(F-G-C-G-C-E), on the Samoan song Let Me Hear You Whisper on his recording SONNY SOLO (Dancing Cat Records).

(6). C Sixth Tuning (X-G-C-G-A-C), also called “Sui Ki Maualuga” (but also referred to as “Low Slack Key”).

(7). There is also an undocumented tuning called “Ki Tu Lua”, also referred to as “Second Position Key.” It could be the F

Wahine Tuning, such as X-F-C-G-C-E; or it could be the D Major Tuning, X-A-D-F#-A-D; or it could be a C Major-based

tuning, such as X-G-C-G-C-E, or again the X-F-C-G-C-E tuning, except playing in the key of C (and it would be called a C

Major tuning when used for the key of C).

– (also, for reference, Hawaiian Slack Key guitarist Sonny Chillingworth occasionally played in a similar C Major tuning that

he called “Samoan C Major Tuning” [F-G-C-G-C-E], on the song Minoi Minoi E, which is not documented on any recordings

at this time).

- Mahalo to Dennis Ladd for this information

 Fiji: Saki, and his nephew, Fiji (both who live in Hawai’i currently)

 The Cook Islands: A term for solo guitar playing there is ki mamaiata, sometimes called ki amoa. This term is closely

related to Slack Key, and is used by guitarists in the Cook Islands (especially on the island of Aitutaki) to describe their

playing, as documented by Hawaiian Slack Key guitarist, composer, and mariner Carlos Andrade. This term literally

translates in their language as “early in the morning”, which is the favorite time there for guitarists to play.

 Papua New Guinea: Especially guitarists on the Island of East New Britain and Mioki Island, which is part of the Duke of

York Islands. Here guitarists often play in the tuning E-A-B-F#-B-D# in the key of E (or in the key of F, the tuning is F-Bb-C-

G-C-E), and it is called “Five Key”, because it has five different tones. They also play in the tuning E-A-B-E-G#-B in the key

of E (or in the key of F the tuning is F-Bb-C-F-A-C), and it is called “”Four-Key”, since it has four different tones.

Three other tunings used are: E-G#-B-F#-B-D# (or in the key of F, it is F-A-C-G-C-E), which could also be called “Five Key”

and it is a tuning used for the bass lines available to play on the three lowest pitched strings; and E-A-C#-F#-B-D# (or in the

key of F, it is F-Bb-D-G-C-E), which could be called “Six Key” because it has six different tones, and it is also a tuning used

for the bass lines available to play on the three lowest pitched strings. The Standard Tuning (E-A-D-G-B-E) is also used to

play in the key of F and other keys, and it could also be called “Six Key” because it has six different tones.

– for more see guitarist/acoustic steel guitarist Bob Brozman’s website www.bobbrozman.com – go to the “Road Notes”

section, then go to “October 2003 – Papua New Guinea”. You can hear the music of five Papua New Guinea stringbands and

singers on the album Bob Brozman produced called SONGS OF THE VOLCANO (Riverboat Records TUGCD1040). On this

album you can hear the “Five Key” Tuning (E-A-B-F#-B-D#), tuned up to the key of F (F-Bb-C-G-C-E) played by the Gilnata

Stringband on three songs: song #15, Tou Ra Vai and song #9, Youth Development Song, and in song #3, Tavurvar, in the

second part of the instrumental introduction. The guitarist playing in the first part of the introduction of song #3, Tavurvar, is

playing in the key of F in the Standard Tuning (E-A-D-G-B-E). You can also see the Gilnata Stringband play in the wonderful

DVD produced and directed by Phil Donnison that comes with the CD, in chapter 3 (Gilnata), chapter 12 (Gitnata Concert),

and in the extras see the third selection (Gilnata Fun).

While there are different theories about the beginnings of Slack Key guitar in the Islands,

ki ho`alu

soon

became a significant part of the music that the

paniolo

would play after work or with families and friends

at gatherings, and this tradition continues today, especially on the Big Island and Maui.

Many guitarists choose to play just for family and friends rather than playing professionally or recording.

George Kuo, reflecting on his Slack Key mentors, points out, “Sometimes the older players would lock

into a groove (keeping the same tempo and feeling) and stay there all night.” This can sometimes be

heard in the playing of Ray Kane and Ni`ihau guitarist Malaki Kanahele.

At first there may not have been many guitars or people who knew how to play, so Hawaiians developed

a way to get a full sound on one guitar. They picked the bass and rhythm chords on three or four of the

lower pitched strings with the thumb, while using their fingers to play the melody or improvised melodic

fills on three or four of the higher pitched strings.

The gut string guitar introduced by the Mexican and Spanish

vaqueros

had a very different sound than

the steel string guitar, which arrived later, probably brought in by the Portuguese around the 1860s. By

the late 1880s, the steel string sound became very popular with the Hawaiians, and Slack Key had spread

to all of the Hawaiian Islands. To this day the steel string guitar predominates, although Slack Key artists

Keola Beamer, Ozzie Kotani, Moses Kahumoku, and Bla Pahinui have also prominently used the

nylon string guitar.

The steel string guitar later gave birth to the steel guitar in the 1880s when guitarists began using a steel

bar on their acoustic steel string guitars. The steel guitar is named for the steel bar playing the string

with the left hand, not for the bodies for the guitars, as the first steel guitars were the wood bodied

guitars. The first tuning used was the most popular Slack Key tuning, the G Major “Taro Patch” Tuning

(D-G-D-G-B-D). Later, in the 20

Century, most steel guitarists used the louder metal-bodied guitars (the

National Steel and Dobro guitars), and the most popular tuning changed to the “High Bass G” Tuning (G-

B-D-G-B-D). Later, in the 1930s the electric metal-bodies steel guitar was invented (which later became

the pedal steel guitar in Mainland America, which is rarely used in Hawai’i), where the most popular

tuning was the C 6th (or A minor 7

) Tuning (C-E-G-A-C-E). After that the acoustic steel guitar was rarely

used until the 1980s when Bob Brozman, Ken Emerson began playing and recording prominently with it,

and occasionally Barney Isaacs, Jerry Byrd, and Led Kaapana and a few other players played and

recorded with it as well.

The Portuguese also brought the small four-string nylon string guitar, the

braguinha

(which was also

called the

cavaquinho,

or the

machete)

, and the Hawaiians adapted this instrument to their music as

well, calling it the ‘ukulele, literally meaning “jumping flea.”

Until the mid-20th century, vocals were probably the most important element of Hawaiian music. The

guitar was probably relegated mainly to a backup role, and was often grouped with other instruments.

Played in a natural, finger-picked style with a steady rhythm, guitar was used as an accompaniment to

hula and singing. The guitar usually did not play the exact melody of the song, but did play a repeated

fragment with improvised variations, often using ornaments such as the hammer-on, pull-off, and

harmonics. In the latter half of the 20th century, however, Slack Key guitarists have increasingly played

the instrumental breaks between some of the vocal verses, often called

pa’ani

, meaning “to answer a

vocal verse (or verses) with an instrumental verse (or verses).” The instrumental verse is also often

called the

pane

. Previously the instrumental breaks were almost always played by steel guitarists.

Since the 1960s, and especially in the 1990s, Hawaiian Slack Key guitar has evolved into a highly

developed instrumental art form, in both solo and group formats. When it is played solo, the beautiful

and unique intricacies of the Slack Key guitar can be most fully appreciated, as the music of each master

has great depth and individuality. Two of the most notable examples of this are Sonny Chillingworth

and Cyril Pahinui, both of whom used extensive backup musicians on their past recordings, and whose

artistry can now be heard more clearly on their entirely solo Dancing Cat releases. When Sonny was first

recording for Dancing Cat, he would say things like, “Don’t you want my boys?” (his band), and “I’ve

never recorded like this!”

For Slack Key player Ozzie Kotani, who studied with the legendary Sonny Chillingworth and whose

original works are conceived as instrumentals, there may be times when words just are not enough: “I

listen to many vocalists, but I see myself as mostly an instrumentalist. Words are important to

communicate ideas, but you can communicate emotions by playing a certain way. Sometimes it’s hard to

express something verbally, but music frees you of that.”

3. King Kalakaua (1836-1891) & Queen Lili`uokalani (1838-1917)

The Slack Key tradition was given an important boost during the reign of King David Kalakaua, who

was responsible for the Hawaiian cultural resurgence of the 1880s and 1890s. King Kalakaua supported

the preservation of ancient Hawaiian music, while encouraging the addition of newer imported

instruments like the

`ukulele

and the guitar. The music at his coronation in 1883 featured the guitar in

combination with the

ipu

(gourd drum) and

pahu

(skin drum) in a new dance form called

hula ku`i

(

ku’i

means “to combine the old and the new”). It was accompanied by those instruments, and it also merged

elements of poetry, chants, and costumes. This mixing of the old and new contributed to the popularity

of both the guitar and the

`ukulele

. At Kalakaua’s Jubilee in 1886, there were also performances of

ancient chants and hula.

Some of his compositions are

Hawai’i Pono’i

(the Hawaiian National Anthem - he wrote the lyrics to this

song and the Royal Hawaiian Band leader Henri Berger wrote the music),

Koni Au I Ka Wai

Sweet Lei

Lehua

‘Akahi Ho’i

Ka Momi

, and

Alekoki

(he wrote the lyrics to

Alekoki

, and Lizzie Alohikea wrote

the music [and there is another traditional song with the same name that is often played with this song

as a medley]).

King Kalakaua’s conviction that the revitalization of traditional culture was at the root of the survival of

the Hawaiian Kingdom became a major factor in the continuity of traditional music and dance. His

influence still shows.

This was a great era of Hawaiian music and compositions, known as the Monarchy Period, when

traditional music and arts were actively supported by the monarchy. Kalakaua, along with his three

siblings, composed beautiful songs that are still well-known today:

William P. Leleiohoku II composed the songs

Adios Ke Aloha

Aloha No Wau I Ko Maka

Nani

Wali Lihu’e

Moani Ke Ala

Ke Ka’upu

He Inoa No Ka’iulani

(a different song from the one with

the same name by Lili’uokalani),

Nani Waipi’o

Hole Waimea

(this one was co-written with his

singing club), and

Kaua I Ka Huahua’i

(Johnny Noble adapted most of the melody and kept most of

the same lyrics of this one, and changed the spelling of the title, for his 1926 song

Hawaiian War

Chant

[

Taua I Ta Huahua’i

]);

Miriam Likelike composed the songs

Ainahau

Ku’u Ipo I Ka He’e Pue One

‘Aia Hiki Mai

Maika’i Waipi’o (Beautiful Waipi’o)

Lei Ohaoha

, and

Ka ‘Owe A Ke Kai

;

And especially Lili’uokalani, who is widely considered Hawai`i's greatest songwriter in history, and is

the most beloved one to the people of Hawai’i. She succeeded King Kalakaua after he passed away in

1891, and she was Hawai`i’s last monarch. Queen Lili`uokalani continued composing even after she

was put under house arrest following the 1893 overthrow of the monarchy, and composed up until her

death in 1917.

Among her classic pieces are

Aloha `Oe, Sanoe, Ku`u Pua I Paoakalani, Pauahi ‘O Kalani, Ahe

Lau Makani, He Inoa No Ka`iulani, Manu Kapalulu, Queen’s Jubilee

(the same melody as

‘Ike Ia

Ladana

Queen’s Prayer, Ka Hanu O Ka Hanakeoki, Ninipo (Ho`onipo), Tutu

He Ai Na Ka

Lani, Ka ‘Oiwi Nani

, and many other beautiful songs. These compositions are still deeply part of the

music of Hawai`i today.

One of Hawai`i’s greatest and most prolific composers, Dennis Kamakahi, has been deeply inspired by

Queen Lili`uokalani, and is one of the greatest vocal interpreters of her songs. He says, “Queen

Lili`uokalani and I have one passion, that is, the passion to write what we see and hear around us and

transform these images into music. She has been the inspiration for me to write in the most poetical way

using the Hawaiian language she knew so well.” Dennis Kamakahi has himself composed beautiful

songs and Hawaiian standards such as

Koke`e, Wahine `Ilikea, Pua Hone, Ke Aloha Mau A Mau,

Kaua`i O Mano, Lei Ko’ele, E Hihiwai

E Pupukanioe

, and

Ka ‘Opae

Ki ho`alu

player and instructor Ozzie Kotani, who has recorded the definitive instrumental album of the

Queen’s music, TO HONOR A QUEEN-E HO'OHIWAHIWAI KA MO'I WAHINE-THE MUSIC OF

LILI’UOKALANI (Dancing Cat Records), said of her compositions, “I love the different melodies. They

sometimes inspire me to play with strength, sometimes with tenderness – never with sadness despite her

experiences. Because of her classical training and exposure to Western music, the songs are more often

‘non-traditional’ – but I still sense the ‘Hawaiian-ness’, her sense of self, her sense of what she wanted to

express musically using her musical knowledge but having confidence with who she was.”

Keola Beamer, who has recorded two of her songs,

Pauahi ‘O Kalani

, on his album SOLILOQUY-KA

LEO O LOKO (Dancing Cat Records), and

Sanoe,

on his album MOE`UHANE-TALES FROM THE DREAM

GUITAR (Dancing Cat Records), said of the Queen: "She was a very, very special person. She made

music of soulful heart and tenderness held in the arms of her own melancholy. She knew in her heart

that her kingdom was lost. After all these years, one can still feel her sadness singing in the quiet spaces

between the notes."

Slack Key guitarist George Kahumoku, Jr. has also recorded an instrumental tribute album to

Lili’uokalani, titled E LILI`U (Kealia Farms Record Company), featuring songs by her, including some

from the soundtrack of the film, ONIPA`A, about her overthrow in 1893.

4. Four Slack Key Styles

Today there are basically four ways of playing Slack Key guitar. Some guitarists play more than one style.

(1). The first style is playing deeply, profoundly, and simply, staying with the melody and a few

ornaments, usually in a slow tempo, most evident in the older playing styles, such as that of the late

Auntie Alice Namakelua (1892-1987).

This also applies to the Hawaiian deep Blues style, where songs are played with a slow deep

swing, and sometimes with a strong accent on beats two and four of the measure. The

Hawaiian Blues style has been used prominently by Leonard Kwan (1931-2000), George

Kuo, Dennis Kamakahi, Moses Kahumoku, George Kahumoku, Jr., and George

Kahumoku, Sr. Some of these Hawaiian Blues songs are:

Moana Chimes, Muli Wai,

Punalu`u, E Hulihuli Ho`i Mai, Mi Nei, Radio Hula, Kalama Ula, Ka`ena, Meleana E,

Kukuna O Ka La , Pua Be Still, Na Pua Lei ‘Ilima , Kauhale O Kamapua`a,

Dennis

Kamakahi’s

Nani Ko`olau, Keiki Mahine, Kalena Kai, My Yellow Ginger Lei (Lei

Awapuhi), Maile Lau Li`i Li`i, Aloha Ku’u Home Kane’ohe (

aka

Kane’ohe) , E Mama E,

Ua Like No A Like, Lepe Ula Ula, Aloha Chant, Wai Ulu, Noe Noe, Sanoe, Queen’s

Jubilee

(this is the same melody as

‘Ike Ia Ladana

Ke Aloha

E Lili’u E

Inikiniki Maile

(Gentle Pinches of the Wind), Lihue, Papakolea, Pua Sadinia, Ka Lei E, Na Hoa He’e

Nalu

, ‘

Akaka Falls

Hilo Hanakahi, Manuela Boy, Ka Manu

None Hula, Pua Makhala,

Matsonia, Nana’o Pili,

and the ultimate Hawaiian blues song,

Kaulana Na

Pua

, written by

Ellen Prendergast in 1893 after the overthrow of Queen Lili`uokalani and the annexation of

Hawai’i by the United States, and

Ku`u Pua I Paokalani

, written by Queen Lili`uokalani

when she was under house arrest after the overthrow. Other Hawaiian songs can be played this

way as well.

(2). The second style is a Slack Key jazz style, with

lots of improvisation, used prominently in

the music of Leland “Atta” Isaacs (1929-1983), Cyril Pahinui, Led Kaapana, Dennis

Kamakahi, Moses Kahumoku, George Kahumoku, Jr., George Kuo, Peter Moon, and

Ozzie Kotani.

(3). The third style creates unique sounds, using ornaments like the hammer-on (or the add-

on), the pull-off, and harmonics (‘’chimes’’, or ‘’bells’’). These are often incorporated into the

older simpler style, as well as the Slack Key jazz style mentioned in the previous paragraph.

Some great songs featuring hammer-ons and pull-offs include: Sonny Chillingworth’s

composition

Ho`omalu Slack Key

, on his recording SONNY SOLO (Dancing Cat Records);

Ray Kane’s composition

Punahele

, on his recording PUNAHELE (Dancing Cat Records);

George Kuo’s composition

Kohala Charmarita

, on his recording ALOHA NO NA KUPUNA-LOVE OF THE

ELDERS (Dancing Cat Records);

and Moses Kahumoku’s composition

Paniolo

, on his recording HO’OKUPU-THE GIFT (Dancing Cat

Records).

Guitarist Manu Kahaiali`i (1935 -1993) used another technique called

ku’iku’i

on his song

So Ti

, in

Eddie Kamae’s documentary film THE HAWAIIAN WAY, and on Manu’s out-of-print album KAHAIALI’I

MAUI STYLE (Naupaka Records). In this technique, the left hand holds the chord normally while the right

hand index finger hammers down on the string and pulls off very rapidly (rather than the normal

plucking), producing a beautiful and unique sound. The late Slack Key guitarist George Kahumoku, Sr.

(1926-1979), called this same technique

ki panipani

There are many songs that feature harmonics, such as: Leonard Kwan’s composition

Ki Ho’alu

Chimes,

on his recording KE’ALA’S MELE (Dancing Cat Records) and his earlier version of that song,

called

Hawaiian Chimes

, on his recording THE LEGENDARY LEONARD KWAN–SLACK KEY MASTER-THE

COMPLETE EARLY RECORDINGS (Hana Ola Records); Ray Kane’s composition

Punahele

, on his

recording PUNAHELE (Dancing Cat Records); Sonny Chillingworth’s two versions of

Moana Chimes

and his composition

Slack Key #1

, both of which are on his recordings WAIMEA COWBOY (Lehua

Records) and ENDLESSLY (Dancing Cat Records), and his version of

Maui Chimes

, on his recording

WAIMEA COWBOY (Lehua Records); and George Kuo’s version of Sonny Chillingworth’s

composition

Ki Ho`alu `Ekahi (Slack Key #1)

on his recording NAHENAHE–HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY

GUITAR (Hula Records), and George’s own composition

Lullaby Chimes

, on his recording ALOHA NO

NA KUPUNA- LOVE FOR THE ELDERS (Dancing Cat Records).

(4). The fourth Slack Key style is sometimes more entertainment-oriented, and features unusual visual

and sound techniques, sometimes for entertaining the listeners, and sometimes to achieve new sounds

for expression. These include: sliding up the strings with the forearm, and also playing with a bag over

the fretting hand (as performed by the late Fred Punahoa and his nephew Led Kaapana); and the

intriguing needle and thread technique, where the player dangles a needle hanging from a thread held

between their teeth across the strings while otherwise playing normally with both hands – the vibrating

needle creates a sound a bit like a mandolin or a hammered dulcimer. This latter technique can be heard

on the fourth verse of the song

Wai Ulu

, on Sonny Chillingworth’s recording SONNY SOLO (Dancing

Cat Records). This technique can also be seen in two great Slack Key films: Susan Friedman’s KI

HO`ALU,

[add kahako above I and O in “KI HO’ALU”]

THAT'S SLACK KEY GUITAR, on the song

Kaula `Ili [NOTE --it is spelled “I” then “L” then “I”---try to make it clearer with a capital “i”

with the little lines on the top and bottom-----it looks like two “L”s now with the upper and

lower case letters ]

by Sonny Chillingworth; and Eddie Kamae’s film THE HAWAIIAN WAY, on

an improvised piece by Slack Key guitarist Phil Secretario.

5. Slack Key Sub-Traditions

These are some sub-traditions of Slack Key guitar playing:

1. Bass patterns

2. Bass runs

3. Vamps

4. Partial chords

5. Ornaments

6. The using of different tunings - when two or more Slack Key guitarists play together

7. Playing all of the song (or a significant part of the song) in keys other than the key the tuning is

8. Changing songs by making medleys, or by adding bridges, or by changing the melody

9. Using chord substitutions for Major chords and dominant sevenths

(

See TECHNICAL ESSAY ON SLACK KEY SUB-TRADITIONS -Section 1a, in this Slack Key

information book for a more detailed discussion).

6. Slack Key Tunings

(

Also see Sections III, IV, V, and VI in this Slack Key information book for more about tunings

In the old days, there was an almost mystical reverence for those who understood

ki ho`alu

, and the

ability to play it was regarded as a special gift. To retain and protect the Slack Key mystique, tunings

were often closely guarded family secrets.

"I'm old enough to remember when we all thought Slack Key would die," says Keola Beamer. "There

were many reasons for that. One of them was that our

kupuna

(elders) had lost so much: their land,

their religious system, their sense of place in the universe. The last thing they wanted to lose was their

music, so tunings became very cultish and protected. The irony was that by way of holding the secrets

too close, this art form was actually dying, suffocating because the information wasn't being

communicated. Maybe there is truth in the saying that one should hold the things that one loves with an

open hand.”

This practice has changed with the times, as the preservation of older Hawaiian traditions has become

more conscious and deliberate. Slack Key guitarists are now more willing to share their knowledge with

those outside the family circle who sincerely wish to learn. The sharing of tunings and techniques greatly

helps ensure that the Slack Key guitar tradition will endure. Ray Kane says, “Play the best you can and

share what you know. If we don’t share Slack Key, we’ll lose it. That almost happened once, so watch

out. Take care of it.”

George Kuo echoes Ray Kane and described this sharing as

pana`i like

, meaning "to give and take, to

reciprocate." He said, "Puakea Nogelmeier [a songwriter and Hawaiian language instructor at the

University of Hawai`i] gave me that name as a way of reflecting all the things that Gabby Pahinui, Atta

Isaacs, Sonny Chillingworth, and other Slack Key elders shared with our generation when we were

growing up, so that now we can pass on skills and knowledge to the next generation."

A wide variety of tunings in several different keys were created to effectively back up singers with their

various vocal ranges. Strings tuned too low lost their tone; strings tuned too high were likely to break.

Thus tunings in six keys were developed. In the early 1800s the Hawaiians probably did not use the capo

(a strap or clamp which fits on the guitar neck and raises the pitch, which allows the same guitar

fingerings to sound in a higher key).

The many ingenious tunings the Hawaiians invented fall into five basic categories:

Major, Wahine,

Mauna Loa, Ni`ihau/Old Mauna Loa

and

Miscellaneous

They retuned the guitar (usually

lowering some of the strings) from the Standard Spanish Tuning (E-A-D-G-B-E - from the lowest pitched

string to the highest), and found that the “slacked” strings resulted in many sweet and resonant tunings;

such as in the G Major “Taro Patch” Tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D), where the sixth, fifth, and first strings are

tuned down from the Standard Tuning. Occasionally Slack Key guitarists will tune up from the Standard

Tuning to get into the Taro Patch Tuning, which in this case would be to tune the fourth, third, and

second strings up from the Standard Tuning, yielding an A Major chord (E-A-E-A-C# -E). The strings are

in the same relationship to each other - the tuning in A is just two half steps higher than the one in G.

Some of the most commonly used tunings are the

Major Tunings

, where the guitar is tuned to a Major

chord or has a Major chord within the tuning. Especially popular is the aforementioned G Major “Taro

Patch” Tuning. This was the first tuning that Led Kaapana taught himself. “It’s one of the easiest to

learn,” he says, “because the strings all relate so closely to one another. One finger on the high string is

all you need to play a basic melody, or throughout the whole song you can just

barre

the chords [holding

down several or all the guitar strings with the index finger of the left hand – and the other fingers of the

left hand also often fret other notes as well]. It sounds pretty full, even that way.”

Ease, however, does not equate with shallowness, points out Ozzie Kotani: “I love the open G or ‘Taro

Patch’ Tuning, because I find it so versatile. It also lends itself to solid bass patterns and many, many

‘traditional’ Slack Key phrasings and vamps. While some Slack Key players don’t like playing in G because

‘everyone knows that tuning’, I see it as a challenge to my creativity and imagination and know I will

never completely tap it dry,” he said.

“There’s tons of repertoire to open in it. My mentality is to open up in a favored tuning and really become

strong in it,” Kotani explained. “Sonny [Chillingworth] once told me, ‘A good Slack Key player isn’t

measured by how many tunings he knows – it’s being able to play almost any song in one tuning that’s

impressive.’ Like most teachers, I share Taro Patch first.”

George Kuo also utilizes the whole range of the G Major “Taro Patch” Tuning, and he works to retain

the sweetness so integral to Hawaiian music: “In Taro Patch you can get a real distinctive bass and play

many different melody patterns and rhythms.”

Also often used are

Wahine Tunings

, which contain a major seventh note. Some musicians say that

these tunings are referred to as “Wahine” (woman) because of their sweet flavor; others say the tunings

got their names in older days when women used to favor them in their playing. Two of the first Wahine

tunings to be developed may have been the C-G-D-G-B-E Tuning (often called “Keola’s C”, because it has

been used most prominently by Slack Key guitarist Keola Beamer) and the G-C-D-G-B-E Tuning (which

is the same as the previous tuning, except the two lowest pitched strings are tuned up and reversed in

pitch, which is actually referred to as the B flat family of tunings) - both in which the four highest pitched

strings retain the same tuning as the Standard Tuning (E-A-D-G-B-E), and thus have the same fingerings

on the four highest pitched strings as in the Standard Tuning; but with the bass notes retuned to the

open strings of the C and G chords (the I and the V chords – the two most used chords in Hawaiian

music).

The two most popular tunings in this category are: the G Wahine Tuning (D-G-D-F#-B-D – often called

“Auntie Alice Namakelua’s Tuning”, because it was prominently used by her), which is especially Spanish

sounding (

also see the 3rd paragraph in the section

ORIGINS OF SLACK KEY above

); and also the C

Wahine Tuning (C-G-D-G-B-D – often called “Leonard’s C”, because it has been used most prominently by

the late Slack Key guitarist Leonard Kwan; it is also often called ”Dropped C”). Ozzie Kotani said, “I

love the deepness and fullness of C Wahine – beautiful chords, really different vamps from Taro [the G

Major Tuning].”

Tunings are comprised of different combinations and amounts of these notes of the Major scale: the first and fifth notes are

always present; the third note usually is present; the major seventh is often in the tuning; the second and the sixth are sometimes

present; and the fourth is occasionally present on one of the three lower pitched strings. (See Section III, TECHNICAL ESSAY ON

SLACK KEY GUITAR TUNINGS for a more detailed discussion).

Speaking about his album MOE`EHANE KIKA -TALES FROM THE DREAM GUITAR (Dancing Cat Records),

Keola Beamer said, “In some of these tunings, the vibrating of sympathetic strings creates a beautiful

overtone series. The overtone series, of course, has been around since time immemorial, but actually

embracing it, working with it and within it, is something I tried to focus on in this recording. It is probably

most apparent,” he continued, “when I use the Low C Wahine Tuning (C-G-D-G-B-E). If you listen

carefully, you can hear a high spectral or ghostlike presence. The mysticism and spectral shadowing

inherent in this halo, or veil, remind me of what one may experience in a dream.”

Also common are the

Mauna Loa Tunings

, in which the two highest pitched strings are tuned a wide

fifth interval apart. In these tunings the sixth intervals are played on the two highest pitched and thinnest

strings (intervals that in many other tunings are played on the highest pitched first and third strings, or

the second and fourth strings - where the four highest pitched strings are tuned either a fourth interval

apart, or a Major third interval apart, or a minor third interval apart). This produces the characteristic

sweet sound of the Mauna Loa Tunings. “C Mauna Loa has nice high movements on the first and second

strings that really separate the melody from the bass line,” said Ozzie Kotani. “You can also play a

melody down near the first fret and then play a great contrasting melody up to the eighth fret and above.

I need to play more in this tuning since it has such great inherent possibilities.”

In his spoken introduction to his live recording of

Mauna Loa Blues

, which appears on his album ALOHA

NO NA KUPUNA -LOVE FOR THE ELDERS (Dancing Cat Records), George Kuo said, “Mauna Loa Tuning,

‘Mokihana Tuning’ as it’s called by some; it’s a very sweet tuning, and it’s one of my favorites. You can

actually make the guitar cry, I think, with this kind of tuning.”

Dennis Kamakahi, who says that C Mauna Loa Tuning is probably his favorite, recounts that Slack Key

guitarist Malaki Kanahele, from the Island of Ni`ihau, once told him that when he (Malaki) was a boy,

people often played in that tuning “to lullaby the kids to sleep” and that it was called “Ki Melia” Tuning.

The three most frequently used Mauna Loa Tunings are: C Mauna Loa Tuning (C-G-E-G-A-E), G Mauna

Loa Tuning (D-G-D-D-G-D - with the third and fourth strings tuned to the same note, providing the

special droning sound of this particular G Mauna Loa Tuning), and B Flat Mauna Loa Tuning (F-Bb-D-F-G-

D - often tuned up two half steps to the key of C). Violins and mandolins brought to Hawai`i, and

normally tuned in fifth intervals, may have influenced these Mauna Loa Tunings.

The

Ni`ihau Tunings,

or also called

Old Mauna Loa Tunings,

are tunings in which two successive

strings are tuned a fourth apart, with the sixth note of the scale on the lower pitched string and the

second note of the scale on the higher pitched string. This allows the player to hammer-on notes on

these two successive strings, which is a characteristic sound of this type of tuning.

(There is a fifth category of

Miscellaneous Tunings

for ones that don’t fit into any of the four

previously mentioned categories).

When two or more guitarists play together, they often use different tunings in the same key. For

example, one guitarist might use the G Major Tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D) and the other might use the G

Wahine Tuning (D-G-D-F#-B-D). Guitars can also be played together with different tunings in different

keys, when one of the guitarists uses a capo (a strap or clamp placed on the fretboard to allow fingerings

in a higher key) to sound in the same key. An example of this would be one guitarist playing in a G

tuning, with a second guitarist in a C tuning, capoed up to the seventh fret to sound in the key of G; or

with one guitarist playing in a C tuning, and the second guitarist playing in a G tuning, capoed up to the

fifth fret to sound in the key of C. Also, often the guitarists might all play in the same tuning but use

different voicings.

Examples of this are:

1. the Slack Key guitarists in the Gabby Pahinui Hawaiian Band

(see Section 8 below titled Gabby

Pahinui, Sonny Chillingworth, and Leonard Kwan –The Three Most Influential Slack Key

Guitarists in History

, paragraph 11

);

Atta Isaacs

and

Gabby Pahinui

on their album TWO SLACK KEY GUITARS, where Atta plays in his C

Major Tuning (C-G-E-G-C-E), and Gabby plays either in his C Wahine Tuning (C-G-E-G-B-E) or in his C

Mauna Loa Tuning (C-G-E-G-A-E)

3. and three of the most beautiful Slack Key duets ever recorded by:

Abraham Konanui and an unnamed second guitarist (possibly Fred Punahoa - both are uncles of

Slack Key great Led Kaapana) on the songs

Hawaiian Melody

and

Maui Serenade

, with both

guitarists probably playing in the Standard Tuning (E-A-D-G-B-E), in the key of C (these two songs, along

with the earliest five recorded tracks by Gabby Pahinui and eight other 1940s and 1950s Slack Key

artists, are reissued on the recording THE HISTORY OF HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY GUITAR (Hana Ola

Records); another beautiful pure slack duet,

Ka Ua Noe (The Misty Rain)

, was recorded by Atta

Isaacs and Gabby Pahinui, with Atta playing in the G Major “Taro Patch” Tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D) and

Gabby playing in the G Wahine Tuning (D-G-D-F#-B-D), on their recording TWO SLACK KEY GUITARS

(Tradewinds Records – [the song was reissued on that CD with the wrong title,

March Medley

] – it was

also issued with the correct title on the recording THE LEGENDARY ATTA ISAACS-INNOVATIVE

HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY GUITAR MASTER (Hana Ola Records); and the duet with Led Kaapana playing in

the G Major “Taro Patch” Tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D) and Leonard Kwan playing in the G Wahine Tuning (D-

G-D-F#-B-D) on the song

Salomila / New ‘Opihi Moemoe

on Led Kaapana’s recording BLACK SAND

(Dancing Cat Records).

7. Slack Key Influences From Outside Hawai`i

Hawai’i is a crossroads of cultures, and its music reflects many influences: Mexican, Spanish, and

Portuguese music; Caribbean music; Polynesian music - especially from Samoa,

Tahiti, and Tonga;

European music - especially from Germany and England; as well as music from the American Mainland,

including early Jazz, mainstream Jazz, Country & Western, traditional and popular folk music, and popular

music & rock. Hawaiians have absorbed it all and enriched it with their

mana

(soul, or spiritual power).

While the late Slack Key master Sonny Chillingworth was strongly committed to Hawaiian music, his

repertoire included a diversity of styles – Hawaiian standards, original compositions, American Country,

Portuguese, American Rock oldies, Puerto Rican, Mexican, and Rhythm & Blues.

According to guitarist Dennis Ladd, Samoan finger-style guitar is called ‘ini, and has not been played as much towards the end of

the 20

Century. Samoan guitarist Vainu`u Tu`igale`ava plays in at least six tunings (the 6th string is not used, and here it is marked

out with an “X”):

(1). Standard Tuning (X-A-D-G-B-E), called “Ki Sepaniolo” (meaning “Spanish Tuning” or “Standard Tuning”), and is mainly played

in the key of C.

(2). G Major Tuning (X-G-D-G-B-D), called “Ki Tu Fa” (which probably means “Fourth Position Key”).

(3). A variation of the G Major Tuning (X-F-D-G-B-D), called “Sui Ki A Le Ki Tu Fa” (meaning “Slack Key of the Open G” – and “sui”

means “change”, or “weaken”, which could also be taken to mean “slack”).

(4). D Wahine Tuning (X-A-D-F#-A-C#), sometimes called “Ki Salamo” (and also called “Repentance Tuning”).

(5). C Sixth, or C Mauna Loa Tuning (X-G-C-G-A-E), called “Sui Ki Maualuga” (and also called “High Slack Key”), with it’s distinctive

sound of the fourth string tuned down to the C note. Slack Key guitarist Leonard Kwan also used this tuning, except with the lowest

pitched sixth string tuned down to the low C note (C-G-C-G-A-E), on his song Pau Pilikia, on his recording LEONARD KWAN–

SLACK KEY MASTER–THE COMPLETE EARLY RECORDINGS (Hana Ola Records). Also, Hawaiian Slack Key guitarist Sonny

Chillingworth used a C Mauna Loa Tuning that he called “Samoan Mauna Loa Tuning” (F-G-C-G-C-E), on the Samoan song Let Me

Hear You Whisper on his recording SONNY SOLO (Dancing Cat Records).

(6). C Sixth Tuning (X-G-C-G-A-C), also called “Sui Ki Maualuga” (but also referred to as “Low Slack Key”).

(7). There is also an undocumented tuning called “Ki Tu Lua”, also referred to as “Second Position Key.” It could be the F Wahine

Tuning, such as X-F-C-G-C-E; or it could be the D Major Tuning, X-A-D-F#-A-D; or it could be a C Major-based tuning, such as X-G-

C-G-C-E, or again the X-F-C-G-C-E tuning, except playing in the key of C (and it would be called a C Major tuning when used for

the key of C).

– (also, for reference, Hawaiian Slack Key guitarist Sonny Chillingworth occasionally played in a similar C Major tuning that he

called “Samoan C Major Tuning” [F-G-C-G-C-E], on the song Minoi Minoi E, which is not documented on any recordings at this

time).

___________

Also two Tahitian guitarists who play some Slack Key, especially in the G Major “Taro Patch” Tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D), are Petiot

Tauru and Michel Peves.

Similarly, Dennis Kamakahi recalled that as he grew up, he had absorbed music from many different

cultures: “At that time it wasn’t strange to go to one house, and they’d have Portuguese music playing;

another would have Puerto Rican music; and another would have Japanese.” Besides Hawaiian music,

rock music was the other major influence in his early years.

Mainland American music has also enjoyed a reciprocal relationship with music from Hawai’i. In the early

1890s, Hawaiian musicians such as the Royal Hawaiian Band, steel guitarists, and vocal groups began

touring in the United States. The 1912 Broadway show, BIRD OF PARADISE, helped introduce Hawaiian

music (although not Slack Key guitar) to the Mainland, as did Hawaiian shows at the big Panama Pacific

International Exhibition in San Francisco in 1915.

In the following years, Hawaiian recordings, especially acoustic steel guitar tracks and vocal recordings,

became the biggest selling record “genre” in Mainland America. Increased recordings and tours by

Hawaiian performers greatly influenced blues musicians who played slide guitar, as well as country &

western steel guitarists. Steel guitar (as opposed to the

steel string

guitar, which is a normal guitar

strung with steel strings, as opposed to nylon strings) refers to any guitar played with a steel bar,

regardless of what material the guitar is made of. Likewise, Slack Key does not refer to a type of guitar

but rather a style of playing that can be performed on any kind of guitar.

In the late 1880s, some Slack Key guitarists began holding the guitar flat on the lap and playing it with

the steel bar. These guitarists used Slack Key tunings, particularly the G Major or “Taro Patch” Tuning (D-

G-D-G-B-D), which the steel players also called “Low Bass G” Tuning. This later evolved into the electric

lap steel guitar, which was also often played on a stand. Later, in Mainland America, pedals and knee

levers were soon added to raise the strings while playing, and this became known as the pedal steel

guitar, which is prevalent in country & western music, but only very rarely played in Hawai’i.

Some Hawaiian steel guitar tunings, and thus some Mainland lap and pedal steel guitar tunings, evolved

from Slack Key tunings. For example, the “High Bass G” Major Tuning (G-B-D-G-B-D) for the dobro (the

acoustic steel) and the electric lap steel, evolved from the G Major “Taro Patch” Tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D -

which was also sometimes called “Low Bass G” Tuning by the early steel guitarists as well). The C Sixth/

A minor Seventh Tuning for the Hawaiian electric steel guitar (C-E-G-A-C-E) and the C Sixth Tuning for

the 10 string pedal steel guitar (C-F-A-C-E-G-A-C-D-E – here strings 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 1 are the same

notes as the Hawaiian six string steel guitar C Sixth [or A minor Seventh] Tuning) may have been

influenced somewhat from the C Mauna Loa Tuning (C-G-E-G-A-E), which has a sixth note (the A note) in

it, on the second string.

The hot jazz of the 1920s and 1930s, especially the great trumpeters Louis Armstrong and Bix

Beiderbecke, influenced the Hawaiian steel guitar players, most notably Sol Ho`opi`i (1902-1953). The

great acoustic steel guitarist, (1908-2004), points out that when he was a boy growing up in the pre-

World War I era, many steel guitar players played in the Slack Key style, using the G Major “Taro Patch”

Tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D). This later changed, however, when steel guitarist Sol Ho`opi`i began changing

the tunings (for example, his C# minor Tuning [E-B-E-G#-C#-E]), and began concentrating on jazz

influenced single note lead lines.

Because of the distance between the Islands, each developed unique styles, sometimes even specific to

regions of an island. The Big Island, due to its size, has engendered the greatest variety of regional

styles. Other players, especially those around Honolulu, often developed more modern and improvised

styles, as a result of greater exposure to different musical traditions from the American Mainland and

other parts of the world. To this day, Slack Key artists draw from the traditions of the area where they

grew up and from the music of their

`ohana

(family), and add to it their own individual playing style. In

recent years, learning from recordings has become more common, as well as learning from professional

teachers, both in schools and private lessons.

8. Gabby Pahinui, Sonny Chillingworth, and Leonard Kwan – The Three Most

Influential Slack Key Guitarists in History

- (and Atta Issacs, Ray Kane, Keola Beamer, Led Kaapana, & Peter Moon; and

the other most influential players)

The most influential Slack Key guitarist in history was the late Philip “Gabby” Pahinui (1921-1980).

The modern Slack Key period began around 1946, when Gabby, often referred to as “The Father of The

Modern Slack Key Era”, made the first-ever Slack Key recordings.

Gabby was the prime influence for keeping Slack Key guitar from dying out in the Islands. His prolific and

unique techniques led to the guitar becoming more recognized as a solo instrument. He expanded the

boundaries of Slack Key guitar by creating a fully-evolved solo guitar style capable of creatively

interpreting a wide variety of Hawaiian traditional and popular standards, original pieces, and even pieces

from other cultures, including Tahiti, Samoa, Fiji, Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Caribbean, Portugal, and

Spain; as well as Mainland American Jazz, folk, pop, and Country & Western music.

Gabby’s five earliest recordings from the 1940s (four 78 rpms on Bell Records and one on Aloha Records)

were especially influential:

Hi`ilawe

(twice),

Key Kohalu

(sic),

Hula Medley

, and

Wai O Keaniani.

These have been reissued along with fifteen 1940s tracks by eight other artists on the recording THE

HISTORY OF HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY GUITAR (Hana Ola Records).

These recordings inspired and astounded many other Slack Key guitarists, given the level of Gabby’s

playing, and because each song was in a different tuning. He also made more great recordings in the

1950s for the Waikiki Label, which were mostly issued on three different albums: HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY-

VOLUME 1, HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY-VOLUME 2, and THE BEST OF HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY. In 1961 the late

Dave Guard (who performed with the first Kingston Trio, and who grew up in Hawai`i and was inspired

by Gabby), produced the beautiful album PURE GABBY (which was eventually released in 1978 on Hula

Records).

Ray Kane says of Gabby, “He had the true Hawaiian style: his voice, his timing, his touch. You can really

feel it in the heart. Words can never express.”

Gabby’s beautiful, expressive vocals, especially his incredibly soulful falsetto, have also inspired many

other musicians, including sons Cyril Pahinui and Bla Pahinui, who are great Slack Key artists and

singers in their own right; as well as son Martin Pahinui, whose voice and falsetto renderings of

Hawaiian classics such as

Hanohano Hawai’i, Pua Lilia, Ipu Lei Manu, Pu’u Anahulu, I Ka Po

Ka Ao, Hi’ilawe

, and others, are especially reminiscent of his father’s.

Exposed to music at home when extended family and friends, including Slack Key greats such as Atta

Isaacs and Sonny Chillingworth, would come together to party and jam into the wee hours of the

morning, Gabby's son Cyril Pahinui started playing guitar and `

ukulele

at the age of seven: "I used to

watch my dad, Atta, Sonny, and my brothers when they would jam. They were so awesome you didn't

want to miss anything. You didn't even want to blink your eyes!" he said. "Music was so important to

him. It was his life. To me all my music, whatever I'm doing, it's Pops and me. I feel his presence." Cyril

composed

Lullaby for Pops

for Gabby, and it appears on his recording 6 & 12 STRING SLACK KEY

(Dancing Cat Records).

Son Bla Pahinui, who likes to experiment with his Hawaiian music (sometimes even changing the

melodies), says: “I don’t like to rush the note. Whatever you do, bottom line, it has to work. It has to be

real, but it has to work – not just for you but also for the other musicians and for whoever takes the time

to listen to you. My dad got away with a lot of stuff, because it worked. And he touched so many people,

because he shared what was in his heart in such an honest and direct way.” In 1983, three years after

his father passed away, Bla wrote

Gabby’s Song

, a

mele inoa

(name song), because, as Bla says, “I

missed him. I just wanted to tell him thanks and that I loved him.” That song appears on Bla’s solo live

album WINDWARD HEART (Dancing Cat Records).

Gabby, known affectionately as Pops, never realized his dream of doing an album with just his sons, but

he did manage to draft sons Bla, Cyril, Martin, and the late Philip Pahinui to join him in various lineups of

The Gabby Pahinui Hawaiian Band, one of the most popular and influential groups of the early 1970s.

At the height of what is now referred to as the Hawaiian Renaissance, Gabby’s band filled large venues,

and also revitalized the Slack Key scene. They recorded four great albums for the Panini Label in the

1970s: GABBY (often called the “Brown Album”), THE RABBIT ISLAND MUSIC FESTIVAL, THE GABBY

PAHINUI HAWAIIAN BAND-VOLUME 1, and THE GABBY PAHINUI HAWAIIAN BAND-VOLUME 2, as well as

five songs on the live compilation double album THE WAIMEA MUSIC FESTIVAL (also on Panini Records).

Just before this in 1971, Gabby also recorded for the Panini Label with the Sons Of Hawai’i, on the

classic and influential album AN ISLAND HERITAGE.

The Gabby Pahinui Hawaiian Band provides a good example of the complex sound that Slack Key can

achieve with multiple guitars in different tunings. Along with Gabby and his sons, this band featured the

late great Slack Key guitarists Leland “Atta” Isaacs, Sr. (1929-1983) and Sonny Chillingworth

(1932-1994). On the band’s recordings

(see Recommended Recordings and Other Information,

Section II of this Slack Key information book, in part #1c, Some Recommended Recordings)

each

guitarist usually played in a different C tuning - and Bla and Cyril often played in D tunings tuned down to

the key of C, or lower, if Gabby was tuned lower than the key of C; and Cyril and especially Bla

sometimes used capos, and also sometimes played in the Standard Tuning (E-A-G-D-B-E). These

different tunings created a thick, multi-textured sound for the band (Joe Gang was the group’s bassist).

The tunings of the Gabby Band were sometimes as follows:

Gabby Pahinui: C-G-E-G-B-E (C Wahine Tuning – from the lowest pitched string to the highest), or

C-G-

E-G-A-E (C Mauna Loa Tuning)

Leland "Atta" Isaacs: C-G-E-G-C-E (C Major Tuning)

Sonny Chillingworth: C-G-D-G-B-D (another C Wahine Tuning)

Cyril Pahinui: D-A-D-F#-B-E (a D 6

Tuning - tuned down two half steps to sound in the key of C,

yielding

C-G-C-E-A-D

)

Bla Pahinui: D-A-D-G-B-E

(

Dropped D Tuning - tuned down two half steps to sound in the key of C,

yielding

C-G-C-F-A-D).

Bla Pahinui also very often played in the Standard Tuning (E-A-D-G-B-E),

sometimes using a capo. For example, playing in the Standard Tuning in the key of G, and capoing the

guitar up to whatever pitch that Gabby’s C tuning was tuned to, as he can be seen doing in the film

GABBY PAHINUI, FAMILY & FRIENDS/THE PAHINUI BROTHERS - here Bla is playing in the key of G, with

his guitar capoed up to the third fret, sounding in the key of B flat, which is the key that Gabby Pahinui’s

C tuning is tuned

down

two half steps to, in the film. Bla also played sometimes in Standard Tuning in

the key of C, if the other guitarists’ Slack Key tunings were tuned up to the key of C. He also occasionally

played in the G Major “Taro Patch” Tuning (D-G-D-G-B-D), also capoing up to whichever pitch that

Gabby’s C tuning was tuned to.

Sonny Chillingworth acknowledged the great impact that Gabby had on him: ”It was Gabby’s [1946]

version of

Hi`ilawe

that really turned me on to Slack Key. That was beautiful. His voice was high then.

We didn’t have electricity on Moloka`i, but we had one of those old Victrolas with a crank. I had that

record going, you know, playing and playing.” Later, a young Sonny finally met Gabby and played his

guitar for him: “He must have liked what he heard, ‘cause he went back in and came out with his guitar.

We played all night. That was really an honor. Later, we played together. I loved the man. Nobody else

did what Gabby did.”

Ozzie Kotani says of Gabby, “He’s the greatest influence on most of us, because of the great recordings

he’s put out. Gabby played a beautiful style with great feeling for the music. No one else has ever done it

quite the same. That’s why I consider myself still a student. I can always look forward to listening to him

and trying to figure out more.”

-------------

Besides Gabby, the two other most influential Slack Key artists are the late Edwin "Sonny"

Chillingworth and the late Leonard Kwan both of whom recorded from the 1950s through the late

1990s.

Sonny Chillingworth (1932-1994) began his recording career in 1954 or 1955, when he recorded

Makee Ailana

with the late Auntie Vickie I`i Rodrigues. He later recorded a 45 rpm single for Waikiki

Records in the late 1950s with his signature composition W

hee Ha Swing

, and his signature

arrangement of

Moana Chimes/Pa’ahana.

In 1964 he released his now-classic first album WAIMEA

COWBOY on the Makaha Label (now on the Lehua Label), and recorded five more albums in the 1960s

and 1970s, as well as backing up many other artists. In addition to playing in the Gabby Pahinui

Hawaiian Band, he kept busy with his own band and for a while, was the Slack Key guitarist in

‘ukulele

master Eddie Kamae’s great and very influential group, The Sons of Hawai`i (a position also held at

different times by Gabby Pahinui, Atta Isaacs, Dennis Kamakahi, and George Kuo), although

Sonny never recorded with them on guitar.

His original approach to bass patterns and runs, chord voicings, and vamps made his style easy to

identify. Like his close friend and mentor, Gabby Pahinui, he both preserved and extended the tradition

as he learned from diverse sources and added his own techniques.

Sonny’s former student, Ozzie Kotani says of his teacher, “I’ll never forget the patience and kindness

Sonny showed me. There’s no question why I am so committed to teaching – Sonny shared with me in

such a memorable way.” Kotani continues, “Sonny was a true virtuoso. His style was unique with

wonderfully original movements. He was able to execute extremely difficult passages with speed and

fluidity, and yet he was able to capture an unmistakable sweetness and cleanness in his playing and

singing. He leaves us a wonderful legacy in his music, an inspiration to everyone who loves Slack Key.”

------------

Leonard Kwan (1931-2000) made his first recording, the track

Hawaiian Chimes

, around 1957, and

he recorded the first ever all-instrumental Slack Key album, SLACK KEY (often called “the Red Album''),

for the Tradewinds Label in 1960. This album, which included his standard Slack Key composition

‘Opihi

Moemoe

, has influenced all the next generations of

ki ho`alu

guitarists and continues to do so today.

This recording also had six pieces that Leonard composed (unusual for Slack Key albums, as the majority

of songs played by most Slack Key guitarists are interpretations of Hawaiian classics and traditional

songs), most of which have become Slack Key standards. This album and all of Leonard’s early recordings

have been reissued on THE LEGENDARY LEONARD KWAN–SLACK KEY MASTER-THE COMPLETE EARLY

RECORDINGS (Hana Ola Records).

Leonard’s favorite tuning was the C Wahine Tuning (C-G-D-G-B-D), and it is often called “Leonard’s C”,

because of his profound use of it in his recordings.

These three Slack Key mentors are noteworthy not only for their beautiful playing (and their singing, in

Gabby’s and Sonny’s cases) and their recordings, but also for the influence they have had in greatly

expanding and forever changing the Slack Key tradition.

------------

Also influential was the late Leland “Atta” Isaacs Sr. (1929-1983) from the renowned Isaacs musical

family, who was a great improviser and was very jazz influenced in his beautiful use of chords. He was

also known for his C Major Tuning (C-G-E-G-C-E), and for his work with Gabby Pahinui, and he

particularly influenced Cyril Pahinui’s playing.

Ray Kane (1925- ) also made some influential early 1960s recordings and embodies the early 1900s

style of playing.

Auntie Alice Namakelua (1892-1987), whose 1800s style was the earliest style ever documented, has

also inspired many players, especially with her prominent use of the old G Wahine Tuning (D-G-D-F#-B-

D), which many refer to by her name, calling it “Auntie Alice Namakelua’s Tuning.”

The release of several great Slack Key albums in the 1960s by Leonard Kwan, Ray Kane, Atta

Isaacs, and Gabby Pahinui on Margaret Williams’ Tradewinds Label, further increased the awareness

and popularity of Slack Key guitar. Those four artists and Sonny Chillingworth recorded in the 1950s,

1960s, and 1970s, and influenced all the younger Slack Key guitarists.

The next generation’s three most influential Slack Key guitarists issued their own first recordings in the

late 1960s and early 1970s and have influenced many players ever since: Keola Beamer (solo and with

his brother Kapono), Led Kaapana (with his trios The Hui `Ohana, and I Kona), and Peter Moon (with

his groups The Sunday Manoa, and The Peter Moon Band).

From the 1980s on Cyril Pahinui, Ozzie Kotani, George Kuo, and George Kahumoku, Jr., have

also been very influential, as have Dennis Kamakahi, Cindy Combs, and John Keawe.

----------

Leonard Kwan, Ray Kane, and Sonny Chillingworth continued to record and influence many Slack

Key guitarists into the 1990s. Also Keola Beamer, Led Kaapana, Cyril Pahinui, Ozzie Kotani,

George Kuo, George Kahumoku, Jr., Dennis Kamakahi, Cindy Combs, and John Keawe have

and continue to influence many players with their recordings, concerts, and workshops.

9. The Most Influential Slack Key Albums:

Although Gabby Pahinui was the most influential Slack Key guitarist, Leonard Kwan had the most

influential

album

with his 1960 recording SLACK KEY (often called “the red album”). The most influential

albums on Slack Key guitarists have been these 19 listed here approximately in the order of the amount

of influence.There are many great recordings, but these albums, released between 1960 and 1978 have

been the ones that other Slack Key guitarists have learned from and have cited the most for many years.

Other albums by these artists have also been influential, as well as those by many other artists (for a list

of many more influential Slack Key albums, see

Recommended Recordings and Other Information

– Section II

of this Slack Key information book and go to part 1,

Recommended Recordings

Prior to the release of these albums Slack Key guitarists learned mainly from family members, and from

occasional 45 RPM and 78 RPM records (also see the reissue recordings THE HISTORY OF HAWAIIAN

SLACK KEY GUITAR (Hana Ola Records) – this recording has 20 historical tracks from the 1940s and the

early 1950s by 9 Slack Key guitarists, including Gabby Pahinui (his first 5 recordings from the 1940s,

which were also the first recordings of Slack Key guitar), Tommy Blaisdell, George Keoki Davis,

Mike Hoomanawanui, George & Tina Kaapana, Henry Kahalekahi, Abraham Konanui, William

Namahoe, and Tommy Solomon).

1. Leonard Kwan’s 1960 album SLACK KEY [often called “the Red Album”] (Tradewinds Records) –

Leonard’s first album was the first ever all-instrumental Slack Key album and featured Leonard’s

compositions, several of which became Slack Key standards, and his definitive arrangements, several of

which have become the standard way to play the songs. This recording and all of Leonard’s other early

recordings have been reissued on THE LEGENDARY LEONARD KWAN–SLACK KEY MASTER-THE

COMPLETE EARLY RECORDINGS (Hana Ola Records). Leonard and Dennis Ladd later put out a book of

transcriptions of many of the songs Leonard had recorded, in both standard notation

and

tablature, called

SLACK KEY INSTRUCTION BOOK (originally on Tradewinds Publications, now available through Elderly

Instruments).

2. Sonny Chillingworth’s 1964 album WAIMEA COWBOY (Makaha Records & later issued on Lehua

Records) – Sonny’s first album was largely instrumental and mainly featured featured his definitive

arrangements, some of which became the standard way to play those songs.

3. Gabby Pahinui’s two albums from around 1960, HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY, VOLUME 1-WITH GABBY

PAHINUI, and HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY, VOLUME 1-WITH GABBY PAHINUI, VOLUME 2 [with the

same

cover

as VOLUME 1] (Waikiki Records 319 & 320) – these albums were largely instrumental and featured

a wide spectrum of Gabby’s playing and definitive arrangements.

4. Keola Beamer’s 1973 album HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY GUITAR IN THE REAL OLD STYLE.(Music of

Polynesia Records) – Keola’s first album of mainly instrumentals featured his definitive arrangements and

compositions. He also released the first ever Slack Key instruction book around this time HAWAIIAN

SLACK KEY GUITAR (Oak Publications - out-of-print), which was an extended version of his earlier book

FIRST METHOD FOR HAWAIIAN SLACK KEY GUITAR.

5. Gabby Pahinui’s album PURE GABBY (Hula Records) – the music for this album was recorded in

1961 and it was not released until 1978 – this album featured Gabby’s definitive playing and

arrangements of many of his older signature pieces, and listed the tunings for each song. Almost

everything Gabby played became a signature song and many of his arrangements became the standard

way to play the songs.

6. Gabby Pahinui’s 1972 album GABBY [often called “The Brown Album”](Panini Records) – this

heralded and popular album was the first one with his GABBY PAHUNIU HAWAIIAN BAND, with Slack Key

guitarists Atta Isaacs, Sonny Chillingworth, Cyril Pahinui, and Bla Pahinui, and it featured his

definitive arrangements, many of which became the standard way to play those songs.

9. Gabby Pahinui’s 1975 album THE GABBY PAHINUI HAWAIIAN BAND, VOLUME 1 (Panini Records) -

another influential album was his third one with his GABBY PAHUNIU HAWAIIAN BAND, with Slack Key

guitarists Atta Isaacs, Cyril Pahinui, Bla Pahinui, and Peter Moon, and it featured his definitive

arrangements, many of which became the standard way to play those songs.

10. Gabby Pahinui and The Sons of Hawaii’s 1971 album AN ISLAND HERITAGE (Panini Records) –

this influential album has many classic arrangements by Gabby along with ‘ukulele master Eddie Kamae,

steel guitar master David “Feet” Rogers, bassist Joe Marshall and singer Moe Keawe - many of

which became the standard way to play those songs.

11. Gabby Pahinui’s 1977 album THE GABBY PAHINUI HAWAIIAN BAND, VOLUME 2 (Panini Records) –

another influential album was his third one with his GABBY PAHUNIU HAWAIIAN BAND, with Slack Key

guitarists Atta Isaacs, Sonny Chillingworth, Cyril Pahinui, and Bla Pahinui, and it featured his

definitive arrangements, many of which became the standard way to play those songs.

12. Gabby Pahinui’s 1973 album THE RABBIT ISLAND MUSIC FESTIVAL (Panini Records) - another

influential album was his second one with his GABBY PAHUNIU HAWAIIAN BAND, with Slack Key

guitarists Atta Isaacs, Sonny Chillingworth, Cyril Pahinui, and Bla Pahinui, and it featured his

definitive arrangements, many of which became the standard way to play those songs.

13. Ray Kane’s 1975 album NANAKULI’S RAYMOND KANE (Tradewinds Records), featuring his very

traditional style, harkening back to the early 1900s. This recording and all of Ray’s other early tracks have

been reissued on THE LEGENDARY RAY KANE–OLD STYLE SLACK KEY–THE COMPLETE EARLY

RECORDINGS (Hana Ola Records).

14. Peter Moon & the Sunday Manoa’s 1972 album GUAVA JAM (Hula Records) – this album featured

Peter Moon’s great Slack Key playing and unique arrangements with the Sunday Manoa (at that time

Robert & Roland Cazimaro).

15. Led Kaapana with Hui Ohana – their first album from 1971, YOUNG HAWAI’I PLAYS OLD HAWAI’I

(Lehua Records) featured great Slack Key guitar by Led Kaapana and great vocals by Dennis Pavau, Led

Kaapana, and Ned Kaapana.

16. Atta Isaacs and Gabby Pahinui’s 1969 album TWO SLACK KEY GUITARS (Tradewinde Records) –

this mainly instrumental album had great playing and arrangements by Atta & Gabby with a backup

band.

17. Atta Isaacs’ 1971 album ATTA [often called “The Orange Album”] (Tradewinds Records) – this was

Atta’s first album as a leader, and featured his great playing and arrangements.This album has been

reissued along with historical tracks of his as THE LEGENDARY ATTA ISAACS–INNOVATIVE HAWAIIAN

SLACK KEY GUITAR MASTER (Hana Ola Records).

18. Leonard Kwan’s 1975 album THE OLD WAY –this all instrumental abum had more of Leonard’s

distinctive arrangements.

19. Leonard Kwan and Ray Kane –this all instrumental album also called SLACK KEY [often referred to

as “the black & white album”] (Tradewinds Records) from the early 1960s had seven songs by Leonard

Kwan (five of which were on his earlier album SLACK KEY [“the Red Album] (Tradewinds Records), and

six songs by Ray Kane. These tracks and all the early Leonard Kwan and Ray Kane tracks are all reissued

on the recordings LEONARD KWAN–SLACK KEY MASTER–THE COMPLETE EARLY RECORDINGS (Hana Ola

Records), and THE LEGENDARY RAY KANE-OLD STYLE SLACK KEY-THE COMPLETE EARLY

RECORDINGS.(Hana Ola Records).

10. Slack Key Since 1970

Since the early 1970s (often called the era of the Hawaiian Renaissance), Hawaiians have increasingly

looked to their cultural roots, and because of this, Slack Key guitar has steadily grown in popularity. The

Hawaiian Music Foundation, founded by the late Dr. George Kanahele, did much to increase awareness

through its publications, music classes, and the sponsoring of concerts, including the landmark 1972

Hawaiian Music Foundation Slack Key Concert in Honolulu, with Gabby Pahinui, Fred Punahoa, which

was the first one ever held anywhere.

The Slack Key tradition possibly reached its peak in the mid-1990s and is still going strong in the early

century. Currently, there are several annual Slack Key festivals held in the Islands, and there are

more live venues featuring Slack Key (see

Recommended Recordings and Other Information –

Section II

of this Slack Key information book and go to part 7,

Seeing Slack Key Live

). More Slack

Key guitar recordings are now available throughout the world. More guitarists are giving concerts more

frequently in Hawai`i, and also in Mainland America, Canada, Japan, Australia, and Europe. Additionally,

Slack Key is gaining recognition in more institutional music settings. In 1998 Ozzie Kotani gave the first-

ever solo instrumental Slack Key recital. With these developments and with the techniques and influences

of today’s players expanding the range of Slack Key guitar, the future looks good for

ki ho`alu

11. Recording Labels

The four record labels that produced the most early Slack Key tracks were: the Bell Label, who issued the

first four Slack Key tracks ever, of Gabby Pahinui, in 1946; the 49

State Label, which issued tracks in

the late 1940s and the early 1950s; the Waikiki Label, which issued tracks in the 1950s by Gabby

Pahinui, Sonny Chillingworth, George Nainoa, and George Kainoa (misspelled on the recording

he was on – his last name is actually

Ka’ainoa

); and the Tradewinds Label, which issued albums in the

1960s by Leonard Kwan, Ray Kane, Gabby Pahinui, and Atta Isaacs.

In the 1960s the Makaha Label and the Lehua Label issued albums by Sonny Chillingworth; and the

Hula Label issued albums by The Sons of Hawai’i with Gabby Pahinui, Peter Moon with The Sunday

Manoa, and one by Auntie Alice Namakelua.

In the 1970s the Panini Label issued recordings by The Gabby Pahinui Hawaiian Band, The Sons of

Hawai’i with Gabby Pahinui, Peter Moon with The Sunday Manoa, as well as with The Peter Moon

Band; and the Hula Label issued the Gabby Pahinui album PURE GABBY.

In the 1970s and the 1980s the Lehua Label, the Poki Label, and the Pumehana Label issued recordings

by Led Kaapana with his bands Hui Ohana and I Kona; and the Music of Polynesia Label issued albums

by Keola Beamer, and the Beamer Brothers.

In the 1980s the Hula Label issued recordings by George Kuo, as well as The Kahumoku Brothers;

and the Kahanu Label issued recordings by Al Ka’ai and Nolan Ha’o. Occasionally other labels also

issued Slack Key oriented recordings in the 1970s, the 1980s, and the 1990s, such as Palm Records,

Kealia Farms Records, Aire Music, Daniel Ho Creations, and others.

Dancing Cat Records has been producing the ongoing Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar Masters Series, starting

in 1994, which consists mainly of solo albums by many of the best players in Hawai`i. The entire

repertoire of each player, as well as experiments beyond, are being recorded. These guitarists include the

late Sonny Chillingworth, Leonard Kwan, Ray Kane, Keola Beamer, Led Kaapana, Cyril

Pahinui, Ozzie Kotani, George Kuo, Dennis Kamakahi, Bla Pahinui, George Kahumoku, Jr.,

Moses Kahumoku, Cindy Combs, Martin Pahinui, Pat Cockett, and others (many albums by these

artists are listed in

Recommended Recordings and Other Information, Section Il

of this Slack Key

information book in part 1,

Some Recommended Recordings)

. Ultimately, Dancing Cat plans to

release at least sixty albums. Until these recordings were made, it was rare to hear Slack Key played solo

on recordings (some of the rare solo guitar tracks were Gabby Pahinui’s

Hula Medley

, the first ever

recorded Slack Key solo guitar track from 1946, George “Keoki” Davis’

Wahine Slack Key

, from the early

1950s [both reissued on THE HISTORY OF SLACK KEY on Hana Ola Records], and Ozzie Kotani’s 1988

album CLASSICAL SLACK).

Dancing Cat Records is also producing a series of Hawaiian acoustic steel and Slack Key guitar duet

recordings. Until recently, this combination has curiously been absent from the entire history of Hawaiian

recording. The first of these, HAWAIIAN TOUCH, with the late steel guitarist Barney Isaacs and Slack

Key guitarist George Kuo, was released in 1995. In 1997, Dancing Cat Records issued KIKA KILA MEETS

KI HO`ALU, featuring Bob Brozman on acoustic steel guitar with Led Kaapana on Slack Key. Bob

Brozman also plays duets with Cyril Pahinui on Slack Key on the 1999 recording FOUR HANDS SWEET

AND HOT, and again with Led Kaapana on the 2001 recording IN THE SADDLE. More of these duet

albums are planned.