Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice,
Bureau of Justice Statistics, April 1999: 86,
NCJ 170013.
2. Ditton, Paula M., and Doris James Wilson,
Truth in Sentencing in State Prisons, Special
Report, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, January 1999:
3, NCJ 170032.
3. The latest figure, for 1997, indicates that 18.6
percent of prisoners released from State prison
leave without correctional supervision (Ditton
and Wilson, Truth in Sentencing, 10).
4. Ibid., 2.
5. Glaser, Daniel, The Effectiveness of a Prison
and Parole System, Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-
Merrill, 1969; Martinson, Robert, “What Works?
—Questions and Answers About Prison Reform,”
Public Interest 35 (2) (1974): 22–54; Sechrest,
Lee, Susan White, and Elizabeth Brown, The
Rehabilitation of Criminal Offenders: Problems
and Prospects
, Washington, DC: National Academy
of Sciences, 1979; DiIulio, John, “Reinventing
Parole and Probation,” Brookings Review 15 (2)
(1997): 40–42; Citizens’ Inquiry on Parole and
Criminal Justice, Report on New York Parole, New
York: Citizens’ Inquiry, 1974; Petersilia, Joan, and
Susan Turner, “Intensive Probation and Parole,” in
Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol.
17, ed. Michael Tonry, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1993: 281–335.
6. The rhetorical point is not the literal fact. A
certain proportion of prisoners do not return
to the community. Of the 1.2 million prisoners,
a small number (about 3,300 per year) die in
prison as a result of illness or other natural
causes, suicide, execution, or for another reason.
Correctional Populations in the United States,
1996, 95.
7. Bureau of Justice Statistics, Correctional
Populations in the United States, 1996, iii, 9;
Snell, Tracy L., Correctional Populations in
the United States, 1993, Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics,
October 1995: 12, NCJ 156241.
8. Figure for 1991 calculated from Correctional
Populations in the United States, 1996; figure
for 1998 figure is from unpublished Bureau of
Justice Statistics data.
9. Petersilia, Joan, “Parole and Prisoner Reentry in
the United States,” in Prisons, ed. Michael Tonry
and Joan Petersilia (Crime and Justice: A Review
of Research, Volume 26), Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1999: 513.
10. Inciardi, James A.,
A Corrections-Based
Continuum of Effective Drug Abuse Treat-
ment, Research Preview, Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice,
June 1996, NCJ 152692; and Martin, Stan, et al.,
“Three-Year Outcomes of Therapeutic Community
Treatment for Drug-Involved Offenders in Delaware:
From Prison to Work Release to Aftercare,” Prison
Journal 79 (3) (September 1999): 294–320.
11. See Looking at a Decade of Drug Courts,
Drug Court Clearinghouse and Technical Assistance
Project, American University, Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs,
Drug Courts Program Office, June 1998: 4, NCJ
171140.
12. Rawson, Richard A., Treatment for Stimul-
ant Use Disorders (Treatment Improvement
Protocol [TIP] Series, 33), DHHS Publication No.
SMA 99–3296, Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, Center for Substance
Abuse Treatment, 1999.
13.
Reforming Sentencing and Corrections for
Just Punishment and Public Safety, Research in
Brief, Sentencing and Corrections: Issues for the
21st Century, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Justice, National Institute of Justice and Corrections
Program Office, September 1999, NCJ 175724.
14. 521 U.S. 346, 1997.
15. Information from the Bureau of Research,
Ohio Department of Rehabilitation and Correction.
Figure is as of 1999.
16. Boston Police Department, “Operation Cease
Fire,” unpublished document, no date (abstract
page).
17. Kennedy, David, “Pulling Levers: Getting
Deterrence Right,” National Institute of Justice
Journal 236 (July 1998): 2–8.
18. Stuart, Barry, “Circle Sentencing in Canada:
A Partnership of the Community and the Criminal
Justice System,” International Journal of
Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 20
(2) (Fall 1996): 291–309; Bazemore, Gordon,
“Conferences, Circles, Boards, and Mediations:
The ‘New Wave’ of Community Justice Decision-
making,” Federal Probation 61 (2) (June 1997):
25–37; and Stuart, Barry, “Circle Sentencing:
Turning Swords Into Ploughshares,” in
Restorative Justice: International Perspectives,
ed. Burt Galaway and Joe Hudson, Monsey, NY:
Criminal Justice Press, 1996: 193–206.
19. An example is the Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,
Police Family Group Conferencing program.
The report of the NIJ-sponsored evaluation is
“Restorative Policing Experiment: The Bethlehem
Pennsylvania Police Family Group Conferencing
Project,” by Paul McCold and Benjamin Wachtel,
final report submitted to NIJ, May 1998 (grant no.
95–IJ–CX–0042).
20. Vermont Reparative Probation, “Program
Overview,” n.p., 1999; and Vermont Reparative
Probation, “Fact Sheet,” n.p., 1999.
21. The procedure followed by the Neighborhood
Conference Committees is described in
Travis
County Neighborhood Conference Committees
Training Manual, Version VI, n.p., June 1999.
22. Braithwaite, J., Crime, Shame and
Reintegration, New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1994: 55, 81, 102; and Braithwaite, J.,
“Reintegrative Shaming, Republicanism, and
Policy,” Crime and Public Policy, ed. Hugh D.
Barlow, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1995: 193–194.
23. See Neighborhood Collective Efficacy—Does
It Help Reduce Violence? by Robert J. Sampson,
Stephen W. Raudenbush, and Felton Earls, Research
Preview, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice,
National Institute of Justice, April 1998, FS 000203.
10 Sentencing & Corrections
10 Sentencing & Corrections
Jeremy Travis, former Director of the National
Institute of Justice, is a Senior Fellow with The
Urban Institute.
This study was supported by cooperative agreement
97–MUMU–K006 between the National Institute of
Justice and the University of Minnesota.
Findings and conclusions of the research reported
here are those of the author and do not necessarily
reflect the official position or policies of the U.S.
Department of Justice.
The National Institute of Justice is a component
of the Office of Justice Programs, which also
includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, the
Bureau of Justice Statistics, the Office of Juvenile
Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the
Office for Victims of Crime.
This and other NIJ publications can be found
at and downloaded from the NIJ Web site
(http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij).
NCJ 181413