HISTORICAL AND LEGAL CONTEXT
National Security Act of 1947
. Prior to 1947, the United States military consisted of two distinct
organizations in a fragmented structure – the Department of War and the Department of the Navy. On
July 26, 1947, President Harry S. Truman executed a major restructuring of military forces by signing the
National Security Act of 1947 into law. The National Security Act merged the Department of the Army
(formerly the Department of War), the Department of the Navy, and the newly established Department of
the Air Force into a single Department of Defense (DoD) under the Secretary of Defense (SecDef). The
purpose of the reorganization was to integrate the policies and procedures of all military departments and
to provide for their unified direction under civilian control of the SecDef, but not to merge the departments
of the services. It also established Unified Combatant Commands to provide strategic direction of
combatant forces and their integration into an efficient team of land, naval, and air forces. In addition to
restructuring the U.S. military, the National Security Act of 1947 established the Central Intelligence
Agency and the National Security Council (NSC). These organizations serve to assist Presidents in
forming and implementing foreign policy.
For more information: National Security Act of 1947
• https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/national-security-act
Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958. Just more than a decade after the enactment of
the National Security Act of 1947 and the subsequent merging of the military departments into a single
DoD, the services still made overlapping efforts, requiring further policy intervention to increase joint
interoperability. Thus, the Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958 was signed into law by
President Dwight D. Eisenhower on August 6, 1958, building upon the efforts of the previous law. The
Reorganization Act streamlined channels of authority, limiting service responsibilities and empowering
the combatant commands in the employment of combat forces. Additionally, it authorized the President,
acting through the SecDef, to establish unified or specified commands, assign missions, and determine
their structure. It established a clear line of command from the President, through the SecDef, to
combatant commanders. President Eisenhower’s goal was “a complete unification of all military planning
and combat forces and commands.” The law requires that each service maintain a responsibility to
organize, train, and equip forces under the direction of their respective service secretary. When a crisis
requires a military response, authority is granted to combatant commanders to direct, deploy, or mobilize
assigned forces provided by each service component.
For more information: Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1958
• https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-72/pdf/STATUTE-72-Pg514.pdf
Goldwater Nichols Act of 1986. In April 1980, President Jimmy Carter authorized OPERATION EAGLE
CLAW to rescue 53 American hostages in Tehran, Iran. The operation included assets from all military
services—Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines. According to the operations plan, Navy RH-53 helicopters
were to launch from the aircraft carrier, USS Nimitz, headed for a remote site known as Desert One.
Meanwhile, Air Force MC-130s and EC-130s would transport a 118-man assault force comprised of Army
Rangers, Delta Operators, and Air Force Combat Controllers to Desert One where they would
rendezvous and refuel the helicopters. From there, the assault force was to enter the U.S. Embassy
compound in Tehran, rescue the hostages, and transport them to safety aboard Air Force C-141 aircraft.
Despite the bravery and dedication of all involved, the operation was ultimately a failure and resulted in
the loss of eight service members. As a result, retired Admiral James L. Holloway III led an official
investigation into the operation’s failure and recorded the findings in the “The Holloway Commission
Report.” The report highlighted 23 key findings; among them were deficiencies in command and control,
joint training, and alterations to joint task force composition.